Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Vladimir A. Rakov
1
In April 2008, CIGRE (International Council on Large
Electric Systems) formed a new Working Group
C4.407, named “Lightning Parameters for
Engineering Applications”.
Berger, K., Anderson, R.B., and Kroninger, H. 1975. Parameters of lightning flashes. Electra, No. 41, pp.
23-37.
CIGRE TB 549, Lightning Parameters for Engineering Applications, WG C4.407, V.A. Rakov, Convenor
(US), A. Borghetti, Secretary (IT), C. Bouquegneau (BE), W.A. Chisholm (CA), V. Cooray (SE), K. Cummins
(US), G. Diendorfer (AT), F. Heidler (DE), A. Hussein (CA), M. Ishii (JP), C.A. Nucci (IT), A. Piantini (BR), O.
Pinto, Jr. (BR), X. Qie (CN), F. Rachidi (CH), M.M.F. Saba (BR), T. Shindo (JP), W. Schulz (AT), R.
Thottappillil (SE), S. Visacro (BR), W. Zischank (DE), 117 p., August 2013.
General Characterization of Lightning
Min = 0.3 km
Max = 7.3 km
GM = 1.7 km
Histogram of the distances between the multiple terminations of 22 individual ground flashes
in Florida. The distances were determined using optical triangulation and thunder ranging.
Adapted from Thottappillil et al. (1992).
6
Return-Stroke Parameters Derived from Current Measurements
99.9
For the CIGRE distribution, 98% of peak
99.5
99 IEEE currents exceed 4 kA, 80% exceed 20
98 kA, and 5% exceed 90 kA.
Percent exceeding abscissa value
95
CIGRE
90
For the IEEE distribution, the
80
70
“probability to exceed” values are given
60 by the following equation
50
40
30
1
PI
20
2.6
10 1 I
5
31
2
1 where ΡI is in per unit, and I is in kA.
0.5
This equation applies to values of I up
0.1
to 200 kA. The median (50%) peak
0.01 current value is equal to 31 kA.
1 4 10 100 1000
Peak current, kA
(a) (b)
S10/90, kA/μS
5% Value
Parameters Units Sample Percent Exceeding Tabulated Value for
Size Negative
First
First
95% 50% Strokes
23
Upward Lightning Discharges
Tall objects (higher than 100 m or so) located on flat terrain and
objects of moderate height (some tens of meters) located on
mountain tops experience primarily upward lightning discharges
that are initiated by upward-propagating leaders.
Assumptions on Vd/Vu in
leader-progression-type
models
Reference Vd/Vu
Eriksson
1
[1987]
Rizk [1990] 1
Dellera and
Decreasing
Garbagnati
from 4 to 1
[1990]
Mazur et al.
2
[2000]
The length of the upward connecting leader was
~400 m, with the initial ~100 m being too faint for
speed measurements. Adapted from Lu et al. (2013).
Monte San Salvatore Tower (70 m), Lugano, Switzerland
31
32
Lightning Parameters Derived from Direct Current Measurements
Percent Exceeding Tabulated Value
Sample
Parameters Units
Size
95% 50% 5%
V = 50 kV
I = -22.3 kA
Typical Induced Voltage at a distance of 145 m and Corresponding Stroke Current (93-05)
34
Electrogeometrical Model (EGM)
Ng=const
Capture surfaces
rs
rs
rs
Illustration of capture surfaces of two towers and earth’s surface in the electrogeometrical
model (EGM). rs is the striking distance defined as the distance from the tip of the descending
leader to the object to be struck at the instant when an upward connecting leader is initiated
from this object. Vertical arrows represent descending leaders, assumed to be uniformly
distributed (Ng=const) above the capture surfaces. Adapted from Bazelyan and Raizer (2000).
35
Electrogeometrical Model (EGM)
rs = 10 I0.65, m
3 { where I is in kA
I, kA r s, m
1
2 10 45
30 91
170 282
Striking distance, rs, versus return-stroke peak current, I [curve 1, Golde (1945); curve 2, Wagner (1963);
curve 3, Love (1973); curve 4, Ruhling (1972); x, theory of Davis (1962); , estimates from two-
dimensional photographs by Eriksson (1978); , estimates from three-dimensional photography by
Eriksson (1978). Adapted from Golde (1977) and Eriksson (1978).
36
Electrogeometrical Model (EGM)
102
Finding rs = f(I)
Q
• Assume critical average
electric field between the
leader tip and the strike
object at the time of I peak/ Q impulse
initiation of upward 100
neg. first strokes
connecting leader from the n=89
object (200-600 kV/m)
• Find rs = f(Q)
10-1
• Use an empirical relation
100 101 102
between Q and I to find I
rs = f(I) Scatter plot of impulse charge, Q, versus return-stroke
peak current, I. Note that both vertical and horizontal
scales are logarithmic. The best fit to data, I = 10.6 Q0.7,
where Q is in coulombs and I is in kiloamperes, was used
in deriving rs = 10 I0.65 Adapted from Berger (1972).
37
Lightning Attachment Process
38
Wang et al. (2014)
Striking distance (2 times the return-stroke initiation height) vs. return-stroke peak
current derived from luminosity for 7 strokes in the anomalous flash (h = 10 m) triggered
at Camp Blanding in 2012. The red curve is based on data for 14 classical triggered-
lightning strokes (with directly measured currents, h = 5 m) from 2011 experiments at
Camp Blanding. The blue curve is recommended for first strokes by the IEC standard.
r = 10 · I0.65
Subsequent
strokes (h = 10 m)
Striking distance (2 times the return-stroke initiation height) vs. return-stroke peak
current derived from luminosity for 7 strokes in the anomalous flash (h = 10 m) triggered
at Camp Blanding in 2012. The red curve is based on data for 14 classical triggered-
lightning strokes (directly measured currents, h = 5 m) from 2011 experiments at Camp
Blanding. The blue curve is recommended for first strokes by the IEC standard.
Optical Images of Leader and Attachment Process – Triggered Lightning
Dart-stepped leader and attachement process in rocket-triggered lightning (Sept. 17, 2008)
at Camp Blanding, Florida; Photron FASTCAM SA1.1, 50000 fps (20 µs per frame); h = 17 m
25 m
56 m
16 m
160
140
Striking distance (m)
120
r = 10 I 0.65
100
80
60
40 (2009)
20 (2009)
0
0 10 20 30 40
Peak current (kA)
Striking distance (2 times the total upward connecting leader length) vs. peak current
for 11 classical triggered-lightning strokes from 2008 (h = 17 m) and 2009 (h = 15 m)
Camp Blanding experiments (based on work of Biagi (2011)). Also shown is the IEC
standard dependence.
CIGRE WG C4.407 Scope
• Evaluation of current measurements on instrumented towers
However, since the “global” distributions have been widely used in lightning
protection studies and are not much different from that based on direct
measurements only, continued use of these “global” distributions for
representing negative first strokes is recommended, along with Berger’s
distribution having a median of 30 kA, σlgI = 0.265.
For negative subsequent strokes and for positive lightning strokes, Berger’s peak
current distributions are still recommended. For negative subsequent strokes, a
log-normal distribution with median = 12 kA and σlgI = 0.265 should be used. For
positive lightning strokes, a log-normal distribution with median = 35 kA and σlgI
= 0.544 is recommended.
10-to-90% and 30-to-90% Average Slopes: Triggered-
Lightning Data vs. Berger’s Natural-Lightning Data
(a) 10 – 90% Average Slope (S10/90) (b) 30 – 90% Average Slope (S30/90)
Trigg.
Natur.
(a) The 10-90% average (steepness): S-10 = 0.8Ip/T-10. (b) The 30-90% average
(steepness): S-30 = 0.6Ip/T-30. GM is the geometric mean and SD is the standard
deviation of the logarithm (base 10) of the parameter. Adapted from Fisher et al.
(1993).
46
Lightning Return Stroke Propagation Speed
There exists some experimental evidence that the negative return stroke speed
may vary non-monotonically along the lightning channel, initially increasing
and then decreasing with increasing height.