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Ch. 26 - Abrasive Machining and Finishing Operations: Brenton Elisberg, Jacob Hunner, Michael Snider, Michael Anderson
Ch. 26 - Abrasive Machining and Finishing Operations: Brenton Elisberg, Jacob Hunner, Michael Snider, Michael Anderson
26 – Abrasive Machining
and Finishing Operations
• Characteristic of
abrasives.
• Defined as the ability of
abrasive grains to fracture
into smaller pieces,
essential to maintaining
sharpness of abrasive
during use.
• High friable abrasive
grains fragment more
under grinding forces, low
friable abrasive grains
fragment less.
Abrasive Types
• Abrasives commonly
found in nature
include:
– Emery
– Corundum
– Quartz
– Garnet
– Diamond
Abrasive Types
• Synthetically created
abrasives include:
– Aluminum oxide (1893)
– Seeded gel (1987)
– Silicon carbide (1891)
– Cubic-boron nitride
(1970’s)
– Synthetic diamond
(1955)
Abrasive Grain Size
• Wear Flat
– After some use, grains along the periphery of
the wheel develop a wear flat.
• Wear flats rub along the ground surface,
creating friction, and making grinding very
inefficient.
Problems with Grinding
• Sparks
– Sparks produced from
grinding are actually
glowing hot chips.
• Tempering
– Excessive heat, often times
from friction, can soften the
work-piece.
• Burning
– Excessive heat may burn
the surface being ground.
Characterized as a bluish
color on ground steel
surfaces.
Problems with Grinding
• Heat Checking
– High temps in grinding may cause cracks in
the work-piece, usually perpendicular to the
grinding surface.
Grain Fracture
• Surface Grinding
• Cylindrical Grinding
• Internal Grinding
• Centerless Grinding
• Creep-feed Grinding
• Heavy Stock Removal by Grinding
• Grinding fluids
Grinding Operations
and Machines
• Surface Grinding -
grinding of flat
surfaces
• Cylindrical Grinding
– axially ground
Grinding Operations
and Machines
• Internal Grinding -
grinding the inside
diameter of a part
• Creep-feed Grinding
– large rates of
grinding for a close to
finished piece
Grinding Operations
and Machines
• Grinding Fluids
– Prevent workpiece
temperature rise
– Improves surface finish
and dimensional
accuracy
– Reduces wheel wear,
loading, and power
consumption
Design Consideration
for Grinding
• Coated abrasives
• Belt Grinding
• Wire Brushing
• Honing
• Superfinishing
• Lapping
• Chemical-Mechanical Polishing
• Electroplating
Finishing Operations
• Coated Abrasives –
have a more pointed
and open structure
than grinding wheels
• Wire Brushing -
produces a fine or
controlled texture
• Honing – improves
surface after boring,
drilling, or internal
grinding
Finishing Operations
• Superfinishing –
very light pressure in
a different path to the
piece
• Lapping – abrasive or
slurry wears the
piece’s ridges down
softly
Finishing Operations
• Chemical-
mechanical
Polishing – slurry of
abrasive particles and
a controlled chemical
corrosive
• Electropolishing –
an unidirectional
pattern by removing
metal from the surface
Deburring Operations
• Manual Deburring
• Mechanical Deburring
• Vibratory and Barrel Finishing
• Shot Blasting
• Abrasive-Flow Machining
• Thermal Energy Deburring
• Robotic Deburring
Deburring Operations
• Abrasive-flow
Machining – a putty
of abrasive grains is
forced through a
piece
Deburring Operations
• Thermal Energy
Deburring – natural
gas and oxygen are
ignited to melt the
burr
• Robotic Deburring –
uses a force-feedback
program to control the
rate and path of
deburring
Economics of Abrasive
Machining and Finishing
Operations
• Advanced Machining
Processes can be used when
mechanical methods are not
satisfactory, economical or
possible due to:
– High strength or hardness
– Too brittle or too flexible
– Complex shapes
– Special finish and dimensional
tolerance requirements
– Temperature rise and residual
stresses
Advanced Mechanical
Processes
• These advanced methods
began to be introduced in
the 1940's.
• Removes material by
chemical dissolution,
etching, melting,
evaporation, and
hydrodynamic action.
• These requirements led to
chemical, electrical, laser,
and high-energy beams as
energy sources for
removing material from
metallic or non-metallic
workpieces.
Chemical Machining
• Chemical machining
– Uses chemical dissolution to dissolve material from the
workpiece.
– Can be used on stones, most metals and some ceramics.
– Oldest of the advanced machining processes.
Chemical Machining
• Photochemical
blanking/machining
– Modification of chemical
milling.
– Can be used on metals as
thin as .0025 mm.
• Applications
– Fine screens.
– Printed circuit boards.
– Electric-motor laminations.
– Flat springs.
– Masks for color televisions.
Chemical Machining
• Electrochemical honing
– Combines the fine abrasive action of honing
with electrochemical action.
– Costs more than conventional honing.
– 5 times faster than conventional honing.
– The tool lasts up to 10 times longer.
• Design considerations for EGC
– Avoid sharp inside radii.
Electrical Discharge
Machining (EDM)
• Principle of operation
– Based on the erosion of
metal by spark discharge
• Components of
operation
– Shaped tool
• Electrode
– Workpiece
• Connected to a DC
power supply
– Dielectric
• Nonconductive fluid
Electrical Discharge
Machining (EDM)
• When the potential difference is sufficiently high,
the dielectric breaks down and a transient spark
discharges through the fluid, removing a very
small amount of material from the workpiece
• Capacitor discharge
– 200-500 kHz
• This process can be used on any electrically
conductive material
Electrical Discharge
Machining (EDM)
• Volume of material removed per discharge
– 10^-10 to 10^-8 in^3
• Material removal can be predicted
– MRR = 4*10^4 I*Tw^-1.23
– MRR is mm^3/min
– I is current in amperes
– Tw is melting point (C)
• Mechanical energy is not a factor
• The hardness, strength, and toughness do not necessarily
influence the removal rate
Electrical Discharge
Machining (EDM)
• Movement in the X&Y
axis is controlled by CNC
systems
• Overcut (in the Z axis) is
the gap between the
electrode and the
workpiece
– Controlled by
servomechanisms
– Critical to maintain a
constant gap
Electrical Discharge
Machining (EDM)
• Dielectric fluids
– Act as a dielectric
– Provide a cooling medium
– Provide a flushing medium
• Common fluids
– Mineral oils
– Distilled/Deionized water
– Kerosene
– Other clear low viscosity
fluids are available which
are easier to clean but
more expensive
Electrical Discharge
Machining (EDM)
• Electrodes
– Graphite
– Brass
– Copper-tungsten alloys
– Formed by casting,
powder metallurgy, or
CNC machining
– On right, human hair
with a 0.0012 inch hole
drilled through
Electrical Discharge
Machining (EDM)
• Electrode wear
– Important factor in maintaining the gap between the
electrode and the workpiece
– Wear ratio is defined as the amount of material
removed to the volume of electrode wear
• 3:1 to 100:1 is typical
– No-wear EDM is defined as the EDM process with
reversed polarity using copper electrodes
Electrical Discharge
Machining (EDM)
• Process capabilities
– Used in the forming of
dies for forging,
extrusion, die casting,
and injection molding
– Typically intricate
shapes
Electrical Discharge
Machining (EDM)
• Material removal rates affect finish quality
– High removal rates produce very rough surface finish with poor
surface integrity
– Finishing cuts are often made at low removal rates so surface
finish can be improved
• Design considerations
– Design so that electrodes can be simple/economical to produce
– Deep slots and narrow openings should be avoided
– Conventional techniques should be used to remove the bulk of
material
Wire EDM
• Similar to contour
cutting with a
bandsaw
• Typically used to cut
thicker material
– Up to 12” thick
– Also used to make
punches, tools and
dies from hard
materials
Wire EDM
• Wire
– Usually made of brass, copper, or tungsten
– Range in diameter from 0.012 – 0.008 inches
– Typically used at 60% of tensile strength
– Used once since it is relatively inexpensive
– Travels at a constant velocity ranging from 6-360
in/min
– Cutting speed is measured in cross sectional area per
unit time (varies with material)
• 18,000 mm^2/hour
• 28 in^2/hour
Wire EDM
• Multiaxis EDM
– Computer controls for
controlling the cutting path
of the wire and its angle
with respect to the
workpiece plane
– Multiheads for cutting
multiple parts
– Features to prevent and
correct wire breakage
– Programming to optimize
the operation
Electrical Discharge
Grinding
• Similar to the standard grinder
• Grinding wheel is made of graphite or brass and
contains no abrasives
• Material is removed by spark discharge between the
workpiece and rotating wheel
• Typically used to sharpen carbide tools and dies
• Can also be used on fragile parts such as surgical
needles, thin-wall tubes, and honeycomb structures
• Process can be combined with electrochemical
discharge grinding
• Material removal rate is similar to that of EDM
– MRR = KI where K is the workpiece material factor in mm^3/A-
min
Laser Beam
Machining
• The source of the energy is the laser
– Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation
• The focus of optical energy on the surface of the
workpiece melts and evaporates portions of the
workpiece in a controlled manner
– Works on both metallic and non-metallic materials
• Important considerations include the reflectivity and
thermal conductivity of the material
• The lower these quantities the more efficient the process
Laser Beam
Machining
• The cutting depth can be calculated using the
formula t = CP/vd where
– t is the depth
– C is a constant for the process
– P is the power input
– v is the cutting speed
– d is the laser spot diameter
• The surface produced is usually rough and has
a heat affected zone (discussed in section 30.9)
Laser Beam
Machining
• Lasers may be used in conjunction with a gas such as
oxygen, nitrogen, or argon to aid in energy absorption
– Commonly referred to as laser beam torches
– The gas helps blow away molten and vaporized material
• Process capabilities also include welding, localized heat
treating, and marking
• Very flexible process
– Fiber optic beam delivery
– Simple fixtures
– Low setup times
Laser Beam
Machining
• Design considerations
– Sharp corners should be avoided
– Deep cuts will produce tapered walls
– Reflectivity is an important consideration
• Dull and unpolished surfaces are preferable
– Any adverse effects on the properties of the machined
materials caused by the high local temperatures and
heat affected zones should be investigated
Electron Beam
Machining
• Energy source is high
velocity electrons
which strike the
workpiece
• Voltages range from
50-200kV
• Electron speeds
range from 50-80%
the speed of light
• Require a vacuum
Electron Beam
Machining
• Plasma arc cutting
– Ionized gas is used to rapidly cut ferrous and nonferrous sheets
and plates
– Temperatures range from 9400-17,000 F
– The process is fast, the kerf width is small, and the surface finish
is good
– Parts as thick as 6” can be cut
– Much faster than the EDM and LBM process
– Design considerations
• Parts must fit in vacuum chamber
• Parts that only require EBM machining on a small portion
should be manufactured as a number of smaller components
Water Jet Machining
• Also known as
hydrodynamic
machining
• The water jet acts as
a saw and cuts a
narrow groove in the
material
• Pressures range from
60ksi to 200ksi
Water Jet Machining
• Process capabilities
– Can be used on any material up to 1” thick
– Cuts can be started at any location without predrilled
holes
– No heat produced
– No flex to the material being cut
• Suitable for flexible materials
– Little wetting of the workpiece
– Little to no burr produced
– Environmentally safe
Water Jet Machining
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