EARTHQUAKE

Earthquake Hazards
Ground Shaking
Ground Rupture
Liquefaction
Earthquake-Induced Landslides
Tsunamis
What is seismology?
It comes from the Greek word “seismic”
which means earthquake .
Seismology is the study of earthquakes
and seismic waves that move through and
around the earth.
 Seismic waves
Are vibrations generated by a sudden
impulse in the earth such as earthquakes.
There are various types of seismic waves
which all differ on how they travel, either
along or near the earth’s surface (surface
waves) or through the earth’s interior (body
waves).
 What are earthquakes?
Earthquakes are natural vibrations of the
ground as a result of two blocks of the
Earth’s crust sliding past each other.
Earthquakes occur because of the pressure
released due to movement of earth’s plates.
 Faults
Faults - breaks in the
earth's crust where the
blocks of rock on each
side are moving in
different directions
 Types of Faults:
Normal fault
Reverse fault/ thrust fault
Strike – slip fault
In a normal fault, the fault plane is
nearly vertical
The hanging wall, the block of rock
positioned above the plane, pushes
down across the footwall, which is
the block of rock below the plane
The footwall, in turn, pushes up
against the hanging wall
These faults occur where the crust
is being pulled apart, due to the pull
of a divergent plate boundary.
The fault plane in a
reverse fault / thrust
fault is also nearly
vertical, but the hanging
wall pushes up and the
footwall pushes down.
This sort of fault forms
where a plate is being
compressed.
 Strike-slip faults
Fault plane is VERTICAL.
No hanging wall and
footwall.
The blocks move
sideways.
The blocks slide past
each other.
 MAGNITUDE
This measures the energy released by an
earthquake and is assessed through
seismograph. The stronger the shaking the
larger the waves.
Magnitude is measured using the Richter
Scale, named after Charles Richter who
developed it in 1935.
MAGNITUDE EARTHQUAKE EFFECTS
2.5 or less Usually not felt, but can be recorded by
seismograph.
2.5 to 5.4 Often felt, but only causes minor
damage
5.5 to 6.0 Slight damage to buildings and other
structures.
6.1 to 6.9 May cause a lot of damage in very
populated areas.
7.0 to 7.9 Major earthquakes. Serious damage.

Great earthquake. Can totally destroy

8.0 or greater communities near the epicenter
 INTENSITY
Refers to the actual effects and damages
made by an earthquake.
Modified Mercalli intensity scale
measures the damage from an earthquake
at a specific location.
The intensity ranges from I (not felt) to XII
(total destruction).
Intensity Description
I Not felt except by a very few under
especially favorable conditions.
II Felt only by a few persons at rest,
especially on upper floors of buildings.

III Felt quite noticeably by persons indoors

especially on upper floors of buildings.
Many people do not recognize it as an
earthquake. Standing motor cars may
rock slightly. Vibration similar to the
passing of truck.
Intensity Description
Felt indoors by many , outdoors by few
during the day . At night some are
awakened. Dishes windows, and doors
IV are disturbed; walls make cracking
sound. Sensation like a heavy truck
striking a building. Standing motor cars
and rock noticeably.

Felt by nearly everyone ; many are

awakened. Some dishes and windows
V are broken. Unstable objects are
overturned.
Intensity Description
Felt by all, many are frightened.
Some heavy are furniture moved; a
VI few instances of fallen plaster.
Damages are slight.
Damage negligible in buildings of
good design and construction;
VII slight to moderate in well-built
ordinary structures; some
chimneys are broken.
Intensity Description
Damage slight in specially designed
structures; considerable damage in
ordinary substantial buildings with
VIII partial collapse.Falls of chimneys,
factory stacks, monuments, and walls.

Damage considerable in specially

designed frame structures thrown out
IX of plumb . Buildings are shifted off
foundations.
Intensity Description
Some well-built wooden structures
X are destroyed; most masonry and
frame structure are destroyed with
foundations, rails are bent.
Few, if any (masonry) structures
XI remain standing. Bridges are
destroyed. Rails are bent greatly.
Damages total. Lines of sight and level
XII are distorted. Objects thrown into the
air.
 GROUND SHAKING
It is one of the most common hazards of
earthquakes. Shaking of the ground causes
the most damage during an earthquake.
It varies depending on the topography,
geologic conditions, and bedrock type of an
area.
Loose sediment has more tendency to
intense quakes than solid bedrock.
 LIQUEFACTION
This is a process in which soft and
sandy soils can behave like a fluid.
It is a direct effect of ground shaking
which makes particles of soil less
compact and makes it flow.
Effects of liquefaction. The tilted building rests on
unconsolidated sediment that behaved like quicksand during
the 1985 Mexican earthquake. (J.L. Beck)
GROUND/ SURFACE RUPTURE
This is an offset of the ground surface
when fault rupture extends to the earth’s
surface.
Any structure built across is at risk of
being taken apart because the two sides
of the fault slip past each other
LANDSLIDES AND ROCKFALLS
Because of the shaking of the ground,
cliffs and steep sloping areas tend to
collapse, causing landslides. Fractured
rocks when disturbed by large
earthquakes can damage and block
major road.
Landslides

A photo of Turnagain Heights landslides caused by

the 1964 Alaskan earthquake.
Tsunami
Tsunami means "great wave in harbor" in
Japanese. The name is fitting as these giant
waves have frequently brought death and
destruction to harbors and coastal villages.
A tsunami hit Hilo, Hawaii on April 1, 1946, 4h 55m after it
originated from a large earthquake in Aleutian trench.
Tsunami runup reached 16m. Total 159 killed in the five main
islands, including 96 deaths in Hilo. No warning was issued.
(UC Berkeley)
Tsunami (continued)

These long period ocean waves can travel thousands of

kilometers across the ocean with the speed (500-9500 km/hr)
equivalent to that of jetliners. The wave speed decreases with
the decrease of ocean depth.

The height of a tsunami in the open ocean is usually less than

1 meter (so it can pass undetected), but the waves can
sometimes exceed 30 m as they slow down in shallow water
and pile up.
Illustration of a tsunami generated by displacement of
ocean floor. The wave speed decreases with the decrease
of ocean depth. The height of a tsunami in the open
ocean is usually less than 1 meter (so it can pass
undetected), but the waves can sometimes exceed 30 m
as they slow down in shallow water and pile up. (Tarbuck
and Lutgents)
 Tsunamis
◦ when an earthquake jolts the ocean
floor, plate movement causes the ocean
floor to rise slightly and push water out
of its way. If the earthquake is strong
enough, the water displaced by the
quake forms large waves.
GROUP TASK
USING A MANILA PAPER MAKE A CHART THAT
SHOWS SAFETY TIPS AND DO’S AND DON’T’S
DURING AN EARTHQUAKE.
IT SHOULD ATTRACT THE ATTENTION OF THE
READER.
YOU MAY ALSO USE ANY KIND OF MATERIALS
EARTHQUAKE - INDUCED
LANDSLIDES
 Why Landslides Occur
1. Removal of support at the base of a slope
which may be due to erosion at the toe of a
slope by rivers or ocean waves.
2. Groundwater pressure during sudden
changes in the water level of bodies of
water adjacent to a slope also acts to
destabilize it.
3. Volcanic eruptions. Bulging of slopes and
the force of volcanic material ejection or
emission may also contribute to slope
instability.
4. Intense rainfall. Landslides are triggered
due to the weakening of the slope material
by water saturation.
5. Snowmelt is also known to have the same
effect as in saturating slope material.
6. Human Interventions. Man contributes to
the instability of slopes through construction
activities, mining, and unabated logging.

7. Earthquakes. Slopes are prone to the

widespread failure during earthquakes
because of the sudden shaking of hilly and
mountainous areas.
 Types of Landslides
Landslides detach, transport, and deposit
earth materials such as solid or loose rocks
and soil.
The types of landslide based on movement
are: topple, fall, slide (rotational and
translational),spread, flow, and complex
slides.
TYPES OF LANDSLIDES
1. TOPPLES occur suddenly when a massive
part of a very steep slopes break loose and
rotate forward.
2. ROCK FALLS
involve chunks of
detached rock
that fall freely for
some distance or
bounce and roll
down the steep slope.
ROCK FALLS
3. SLIDES
involve large blocks of bedrock that
break free and slide down along a planar or
curved surface
 4. LATERAL SPREADS
are triggered by earthquakes and affect
gentle slopes with less that 10 degrees
inclination. Slope material loses cohesion
through liquefaction caused by the shaking
during earthquakes.
5. FLOWS
involve downslope motion of fine-
grained clay, silt, and fine sand made
mobile by water saturation.
6. COMPLEX SLIDES
are combinations of two or more
types of movement.
 TSUNAMIS
1. DESCRIBE HOW TSUNAMIS ARE GENERATED BY
EARTHQUAKES AND OTHER PROCESSES IN THE
OCEAN
2. DIFFERENTIATE TSUNAMI WAVES FROM OTHER
DESTRUCTIVE WATER WAVES.
3. ANALYZE HOW TSUNAMIS AFFECT MAN AND MAN -
MADE STRUCTURES.
4. LIST WAYS TO MINIMIZE OR AVOID THE DAMAGE
TSUNAMIS MAY CAUSE.
 Causes of Tsunami
Other possible triggering mechanisms include:
1. Landslide
it includes landslides occurring under the
ocean and coastal landslides displacing ocean
water. Tsunamis can be secondary effects of
earthquakes through earthquake – triggered
landslides occurring under the ocean or in
coastal areas.
2. Volcanic eruption or explosion
Any submarine or coastal volcanic activity
and products that can trigger tsunami by
displacing large volumes of water. These
includes explosions, large volcanic debris
avalanche, and massive pyroclastic flows.
3. Meteorite Impact
meteorites impacting the ocean can
trigger tsunamis
 How to Escape a Tsunami
• Takethe occurrence of an earthquake as a natural
alerting mechanism. Once its tsunamigenic nature
is confirmed, prepare to vacate areas close to the
shore and head towards high ground right away.
Large earthquakes occurring offshore indicate
close proximity. This requires immediate
evacuation.
• Always keep a radio or other sources of
information (mobile phones). Warnings and
advisories should be taken seriously by
those living close to the shore.
• Bring a survival kit with you at all times.
The kit must include first aid items, water,
canned goods or other kinds of non-
perishable items, flashlight with extra
battery , whistle, and a communication
device.
• Bring only a survival kit with you.
One’s priority is safety . The idea is to
get out as quickly as possible with
your family.
• Once the designated evacuation
center is reached, stay there until
advised by authorities when it is safe
to leave.
• take only escape routes that are safe from
the tsunami waves and floods. Stay away
from washed out roads to avoid being
exposed to landslides and other secondary
effects of tsunami.
• if escape is too late, cling on to floating
objects to prevent drowning. Stay alert at all
times.
 EFFECTS OF TSUNAMI
Large tsunamis have devastating effects
to life, property, and the environment. Our
main concern is the wholesale loss of lives
due to drowning, building collapse, impact
of various kinds of debris, and sometimes by
electrocution.
 Death

One of the biggest and worst effects of a tsunami is

the cost to human life because unfortunately
escaping a tsunami is nearly impossible.
Hundreds and thousands of people are killed by
tsunamis. Since 1850 alone, tsunamis have been
responsible for the loss of more than 430,000 lives.
There is very little warning before a tsunamis hits
land. As the water rushes toward land, it leaves very
little time to map an escape plan.
 Disease
Flooding and contamination of drinking water can
cause disease to spread in the tsunami hit areas.
Illnesses such as malaria arise when water is
stagnant and contaminated. Under these
conditions it is difficult for people to stay healthy
and for diseases to be treated, so infections and
illnesses can spread very quickly, causing more
death.
 Environmental impacts
Tsunamis not only destroy human life, but have a
devastating effect on insects, animals, plants, and
natural resources.
A tsunami changes the landscape. It uproots trees
and plants and destroys animal habitats such as
nesting sites for birds. Land animals are killed by
drowning and sea animals are killed by pollution if
dangerous chemicals are washed away into the sea,
thus poisoning the marine life.
 Cost
Massive costs hit communities and nations when a
tsunami happens. Victims and survivors of the
tsunami need immediate help from rescue teams.
Reconstruction and clean up after a tsunami is a
huge cost problem. Infrastructure must be replaced,
unsafe buildings demolished and rubbish cleared.
Loss of income in the local economy and future
losses from the destruction of infrastructure will be
a problem for some time to come.
 Psychological effects
Victims of tsunami events often suffer psychological
problems which can last for days, years or an entire
lifetime.
Survivors of the Sri Lankan tsunami of December 2004
were found to have PTSD (post traumatic stress disorder)
when examined by the World Health Organization (WHO):
14% to 39% of these were children, 40% of adolescents and
20% of mothers of these adolescents were found to have
PTSD 4 months after the tsunami.
These people were suffering from grief and depression as
their homes, businesses and loved ones were taken from
them.
 ASSIGNMENT 1 whole
1. why is the Mayon Volcano considered as the
most active volcano in the Philippines?
2. how can the government ensure the safety
of people living in communities near
volcanoes?
3. what makes volcanic ashfall dangerous to
communities and human lives?