Radiation Safety-Basics

January, 2008

By Lafi Al-Fehaid, MS,CHCM, ASP

1
What is Radiation

 Quite simply, radiation is a form of energy, Radiation

comes from atoms, the building blocks of all matter, and
is around us all the time.

2
 Background Exposure

Fallout 5
Mining 5 Cosmic 30
Body 20 Soil 30

building
material 60 Medical 90
other misc.
radon, etc. 111

nuclear
power 1
Average individual exposure Jet Flight 5
is approximately 360 mrem/yr Misc. products 3
3
Definitions

 Ionization: The process of adding

electrons to, or removing electrons
from, atoms or molecules. This
creates ions.
 Ion: An atom that has gained or
loss one or more electrons or an
electron that is attached to an
atom. Ions have an electrical
charge.

4
Definitions

 Ionizing radiation: the result of breakdown or decay of

the atom’s structure.
 Non-Ionizing Radiation: Radiation that does not have
enough energy to create ions. For example, visible
light, radiowaves, microwaves.

5
Radiation Safety Theory

 The Atom
 Isotopes
 Radioactivity

6
 The Atom

 A unit of matter. An atom consists

of a central charged nucleus (made
of neutrons and protons) and
electrons that surround the
nucleus.

7
Sub-atomic Particles

Proton Neutron Electron

Symbol p n e
Mass 1 AMU 1 AMU .00054 AMU
Charge +1 0 -1
Location Nucleus Nucleus Electron
cloud

8
Isotopes

 Isotopes are different forms of an element which

has the same number of protons but a different
number of neutrons.
 They have the same atomic number, but they have
different atomic masses.
 For example: the element hydrogen has three
known isotopes: Hydrogen, deuterium and Tritium.

9
Radiation Vs Radioactivity

Light Gamma
rays

Electro-
Magnetic
Energy

Cs-137
Co- 60
Energy
Source

Radioactivity
10
Types of Radiation

Beta
Alpha

Gamma
Neutron

11
Penetration of Radiation

Neutron Alpha Beta Electromagnetic

high low

Skin

Aluminum

Steel

12
Half-Life

 The term half-life refers to the length of time that it

takes for 50% of this residual energy to be given off.
Correspondingly, the rate at which radiation is given of
decreases to 50% in one half-life.
 The rate that the energy is given off is called the
activity.

13
Half-Life

 Cesium-137-------30.2 years
 Cobalt-60---------5.3 years
 Iron-55-----------2.7 years

14
Affects on Process

Will it make my process

NO
material radioactive?
Or contaminated?
Or changed in any way?

15
Radon(NORMS)

 Radon is a colorless, odorless and radioactive gas

that is formed from the complex decay of uranium.
 It is found naturally in many locations in soils, rock
and water.
 The decay products of radon, called radon daughters,
emit alpha, beta and gamma radiation.
 Assessment of construction sites for radon and
control methods is now an important element of
facility design.

16
Measuring
Radiation

17
Unit of Measurements

 Exposure-roetengen
 Absorbed dose-rad
 Biological Dose Equivalent-rem
(Most used)

18
The 3 Rs

Roentgen R
Field intensity in air

Rad
Radiation absorbed dose

Rem r
Roentgen equivalent man
19
The 3Rs
Roentgen

 A roentgen is a unit of exposure

 1 roentgen (R) = the amount of gamma radiation that
would produce 1 electrostatic charge in the air
* Is the effect of the radiation on one cubic centimeter of
air at standard temperature and pressure

20
The 3Rs

Rad
• The roetengen applies only to x and gamma radiation in
air.

• Ionization can be caused by other types of radiation, like

beta, neutrons, etc

• For this reason it was considered necessary to introduce

a unit which would depen only upon the amount of
energy absorbed per unit mass of material

21
The 3Rs

Rad

 It is a measure of the amount of energy

imparted to matter by ionizing radiation
 Some materials absorb radiation more readily
than others
 1 rad = 100 ergs/gram
 An erg is a unit of energy in the metric
system
* For gamma and x-ray 1 R = 1 rad

22
The 3Rs

 The roetengen and the rad are based upon a

“quantity of energy” rather then the
biological damage caused by the dose.

23
The 3Rs

Rem

 Stands for “roentgen equivalent man”

* The measure of the dose to body tissue in
terms of estimated Biological effect
 1R of x-rays = 1 rem
(thus, if a person has been exposed to one
roentgen of x-ray, the biological dose
equivalent is one rem)
 For other types rem = rad x quality factor

24
The 3Rs

Rem

 For standard international units the Biological

Dose Equivalent is the sievert which is defined
as:
 Sievert= Gray x Quality Factor
Therefore 1rem=100 sievert
1 millirem=10 micro sieverts
 For other types rem = rad x quality factor

25
Source Activity

Curie

 Activity is a measure of the number of

decays per second.
 The most common unit for activity is
millicurie (mCi).
* Increasing activity increases the number of
samples measured at the detector.
 Implications for S/N ratio and response
time of detector

26
Nuclear Material

27
Fixed Gauges

 Whatever the application, these gauges

ensure quality control in a process.

28
Level Gauges

Detector Source
Holder

29
Nondestructive Testing of Metals and Alloys

 As the name itself implies, non-destructive

testing means testing of materials without
destroying them.
 Its purpose is to detect and evaluate any
defects or predict the strength and
serviceability of the parts
 The non-destructive techniques have become
important tools for the industries to initiate
preventive maintenance programs.

30
Nondestructive Testing

 The following actions must be completed prior to

permitting contractors to enter the plant operating
area to use ionizing radiation sources:
 The contractor license, equipment and standard
operating procedures are inspected and approved by
the Radiation Protection Officer/Authorized
Representative.
 A Work Permit is executed and an operations
representative is assigned to monitor the work in
progress.
NOTE: Radiography sources used in a unit may affect the
readings of the radiation level and density gauges.

31
Radiation Measurements

 Geiger-Mueller Counters.
 Ionizing Chambers
 Dosimeters
 Film Badges.

32
 Using Radiation Survey Meters

1. Get the right meter for the radiation

2. Check the batteries

3. Check the calibration

4. Make sure it is working

Radiation Hazards Controls

 Limiting Radiation emissions at the source.

 Limiting time of exposure
 Extending the distance from a source.
 Shielding.

34
Controlling Radiation Hazard

 The tools for controlling radiation

hazard should be used at all times.
* These tools are:
 Time
 Distance
 Shielding
 Planning

35
Radiation Safety Calculations

Inverse Square Law

R2= R1(d1/d2)2
Where
R2=Radiation field intensity at a distance d2
from a source
R1=Radiation field intensity at a distance d1
from a source
 It is important to remember that all radiation
measurements have a dose and intensity for
each point measured

36
Radiation Fields

The field intensity varies

with the square of the
distance.

1.00 mr/hr at one foot -

0.25 mr/hr at two feet --
0.11 mr/hr at three feet -
--

37
Radiation Safety Calculations

Inverse Square Law

 If the radiation field intensity at a distance of

1 foot from a source is 10 mr/hr, what is the
radiation field intensity at a distance of 3
feet?

38
 Radiation Safety Calculations

Inverse Square Law

 A sealed cesium-137 source yields an intensity of 400

milliroetngens (mR) per hour at a distance of two meters.
At what distance, in meters, is the intensity reduced to
two mR per hour?

39
 Radiation Safety Calculations

Inverse Square Law

 A sealed cesium-137 source yields an intensity of 400

milliroetngens (mR) per hour at a distance of two
meters. At what distance, in meters, is the intensity
reduced to two mR per hour?

40
41
 Half-value Layers
4 stopped by 1st layer
2 stopped by 2nd layer
8 units 1 stopped by 3rd layer
before shielding

1 unit not blocked

42
Calculations-Half-value Layers

 A Cs-137 source has a field intensity

of 8 mR/hr How many half-value
layers are required to reduce the field
intensity to 2mR/hr?

43
 Calculations-Half-value Layers

 How many inches of steel are needed to fulfill

the amount requirements of the above
example.
 NOTE: for CS-137, a half-value layer of steel
is 0.5 inches.

44
Radiation Safety Calculations
Calculating Dose Rate at any Distance

 R=(K) (A)/d2
Where:
 R= dose rate in mrem/hr
 A= Source activity, mCi
 d= distance to the source in feet
 K= constant whose value depends on the source
Cs-137-----3.5
Ra-226-----9
Co-60-------14

45
Radiation Safety Calculations
Calculating Dose Rate at any Distance

 What is the absorbed dose rate at a

distance of 1 feet from 10 mCi Cs-137
source?

46
Radiation Safety Calculations
Calculating Dose Rate at any Distance

 How far away should a worker stand from a 4mCi

Cs-137 source to keep the absorbed dose rate less
than 2 mrem/hr?

47
Radiation Health Effects

 Exposure to radiation may produce a variety of effects

in man.
 Damage is a function of the type of radiation, dose,
the tissue and organ exposed and age.
 For whole body radiation the most critical organs and
tissues are the lens of the eyes,the blood forming
organs(red bone marrow) and the gonads.
 Radiation may produce generic effects,leukemia and
other cancers.

48
Types of Exposures

 Chronic
 Repeated small doses of ionizing radiation
* Acute
 Large dose in a short period of time

49
Categories of Radiation Exposure

 Radiation sickness
 Occurs in major incidents
 Radiation injury
 More common
* Radiation poisoning
 Due to ingestion

50
Radiation Limits Are Similar to Speed Limits

55
mph

51
Radiation Health Effects
Conclusion

 As in every activity in our lives, there is some risk

involved with radioactive materials. Occupational
exposures are believed to be at a level where the
probability of experiencing delayed effect is low.
 The exposures are also at levels where the
occurrence of prompt effect is zero, under normal
conditions

52
Radioactive Materials Program

 A statement of safety goals must be set for

every program
 Just because a limit is set does not mean
that it is a safe limit
* Individual decisions must be made to
decide what are acceptable risks and what
are not acceptable risks

53
 Emergency Procedures involving
Radioactive Materials

 Priority should be given to human safety

 Evacuate all personnel working in the area
 A property response as per company procedure (if
available)-Response to isolate area & contain exposure
amount
 Identify and immediately isolate all persons who might
have received high exposure
 Take steps necessary to stabilize all systems.
 Notify the appropriate authorities promptly
 Maintain complete records of the accident and follow-up
procedures

54
Alara

As
Low
As
Reasonably
Achievable 55
56
Radiation Case Studies

 Introduction
 Three Mile Island
 Chernobyl
 visual display terminals (VDTs) at the Toronto Star

57
 MICROWAVE OVENS

 Microwave ovens used in association with food vending

services present a particular hazard for several reasons.
Since these devices are available to any person at the
site, the potential for a defective machine irradiating a
great number of people exists.
 Most such devices are intended to be tamper proof and
fail-safe; however, the ingenuity of people in
overcoming such safety measures is legendary.
 Since these machines are usually not used under
trained supervision, the potential for misuse or improper
use is quite high.
 Because of their general accessibility, special care
should be exercised in posting warning signs near these
machines and in checking them for safe operation
regularly.
58
 MICROWAVE OVENS

The following list of safe practices should be posted near or

on microwave ovens:
 Stay at least One meter away from the front of an
operating oven.
 Make sure that the oven is off anytime that the door
is opened.
 Do not attempt to watch the food cooking through
the viewing port.
 Never insert objects through the door grill or around
the door seal.
 Never tamper with or inactivate the oven safety
interlocks.
 Do not operate the oven while empty.
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Radiation Safety References

 NSC, Industrial Hygiene Handbook

 Roger Brauer, Safety & health for Engineers
 U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission
http://www.nrc.gov/
 ICRP: International Commission on Radiation
Protection
http://www.icrp.org/

60
Radiation Safety References

 United States Department of Transportation Rules and

Regulations
www.dot.gov
 United States Department of Labor (OSHA) Rules and
Regulations for Ionizing & Non-Ionizing Radiation
29 CFR 1910.97 & .1096
 Others

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