Professional Documents
Culture Documents
An item of data
Examples:
– gender
– test scores
– weight
Value varies from one observation to
another
Types/Classifications of Variables
Qualitative
Quantitative
– Discrete
– Continuous
Qualitative Data
Describes the quality
Non-numerical format
Counts
Cannot order or measure
Examples
– gender
– marital status
– geographical region
– job title….
Categorical data
Non-overlapping categories or
characteristics
Examples:
– Completes/Incompletes
– Professions
– Gender
Quantitative Data
Frequencies
Measurements
Discrete
Measurements are integers
Examples:
– number of employees of a company
– number of incorrect answers on a test
– number of participants in a program…
Continuous
Measurements can take on any value -
usually within some range
Examples:
– Age
– Income
Arithmetic operations such as differences
and averages make sense.
Qualitatiave or Quantitative?
Discrete or Continuous?
Score on a placement exam
Preferred restaurant
Dollar amount of a loan
Height
Salary
Length of time to complete a task
Number of applicants
Ethnic origin
Treatment as Ranks
Natural order
Not strictly measured
Examples:
– Age group
– Likert Scale data
Distinction between adjacent points on the
scale is not necessarily the same
Analysis
Qualitative Data
Frequency tables
Modes - most frequently occurring
Graphs: Bar Charts and Pie Charts
Analysis
Quantitative Data
Any form
Create groups or categories and generate
frequency tables
All descriptive statistics
Effective Graphs:
Quantitative Data
Histograms
Stem-and-Leaf plots
Dot Plots
Box plots
XY Scatter Plots (2 variables).
Examples of Graphs
Pie Chart
Performance Appraisals
10%
38%
More Difficult
14%
Difficult
Same
Much Easier
Easier
33%
90
80
70
60
50 East
40 West
30 North
20
10
0
1st Qtr 2nd Qtr 3rd Qtr 4th Qtr
Histogram
Histogram
12
10
8
Frequency
6
4
2
0
49 59 69 79 89 99
Score
Boxplot
Boxplot of C1
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
C1
Stem and Leaf Plot
Stem and Leaf Plot
Weight of Meat
7 5
8 3
8 7999
9 23
9 66789
10
10 688
11 2244
11 788
12 4
12 8
13
13 8
14 1
Analyze Ranked Data
Frequency tables
Mode, Median, Quartiles
Graphs:
– Bar Charts
– Dot Plots, Pie Charts
– Line Charts (2 variables)
Data Example
Suggest some ways you could analyze these items.
English
Spanish 55%
Segment - percentage of 25%
the whole that falls into
each category Native Language
Bar Charts
Bar charts - % in various
categories Average Units Sold (per person) by Product
Vertical scale - 20
frequencies, relative
Average Sold/Person
15
frequencies 10
Horizontal scale -
5 Bef ore Training
A f ter Training
0
categories B41 BA 42 B41F C21 Other
Allows comparisons
Product
Constructing Bar Charts
All boxes should have the same width
Gaps between the boxes - no connection
between
Any order.
Use to represent two categorical variables
simultaneously
Graphs: Measured
Continues Quantitative Data
Histograms
Stem and Leaf
Box plots
Line Graphs
XY Scatter Charts (2 variables)
Histograms
Frequency Grade Distribution
distributions of 12
10
continuous variables
Frequency
8
6
Frequency
8
6
Number of values in 4
2
each interval -class 0 Grade
59 69 79 89 99
frequency
Relative frequencies o
XY Scatter Chart
Two variables
Abscent by Age
Variables: quantitative and
continuous. 20
15
Plot pairs - rectangular
Days Absent 10
coordinate system 5
Examine the relationship 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
between two variables
Age
Line Chart
Similar to the scatter
1997 Monthly Sales
chart
Values of the 170
165
160
independent variable
Sales (x$10,000)
155
150
(shown on the 145
140
horizontal axis) can be 135
130
ranked values (i.e.. 125
Jan
June
Mar
Feb
May
Apr
they do not have to be Month
continuous variables).
Basic Principles for Constructing
All Plots
Data should stand out clearly from
background
The information should be clearly labeled
– title
– axes, bars, pie segments, etc. - include units that
are needed to interpret data
– scale including starting points.
Principles cont.
Source
No clutter
Minimize information or data on one graph.
Try several approaches
Describing Data
Shape of the Distribution
– Symmetry
– Skewness
– Modality: most frequently occurring value
– Unimodal or bimodal or uniform
Right Skewed Left Skewed
Histogram Histogram
12 12
10 10
Frequency
Frequency
8 8
6 6
4 4
2 2
0 0
59 69 79 89 99 59 69 79 89 99
Grade Grade
Histogram
12
10
Frequency
8
6
4 Symmetrical
2
0
59 69 79 89 99
Grade
Describing Data
Centrality
Spread
Extreme values
Measures of Centrality
Mean
Median
Mode
Mean
Most common measure
Extremely large values in a data set will
increase the value of the mean
Extremely low values will decrease it.
Calculating the
Mean
T1 T2 T3
85 85 85
90 90 90
75 35 75
90 90 110
340 300 360 Sum
85 75 90 Mean
Median
Central point .
Half of the data has a value than the median
Half of the data has a higher value than the
median
Not affected by extremely large or small
values
Find the Median
85 90 75 92 95 Data
75 85 90 92 95 Sorted Data
Median is 90.
Find the Median
95 90 92 85 Data
85 90 92 95 Sorted Data
Median:
(90 + 92)/2 = 91
Measures of Spread
Range
Subtract the smallest value from the largest
Report the smallest and largest values.
85 90 75 92 95 Scores
Range: 75 to 95
or 20
Variance/Standard Deviation
Average variation of the data values from
the mean of the values
Variance.
The Empirical Rule
Symmetrical Data
At least:
68% of the data values are within one standard
deviation of the mean
90% of the data values are within two standard
deviation of the mean
99% of the data values are within three standard
deviations of the mean
Tchybychef’s Inequality
Skewed Data
At least:
75% of the data values are within two standard
deviation of the mean.
90% of the data values are within one standard
deviation of the mean.
Measures of Relative Standing
Percentiles
Quartiles
Quartiles
The lower quartile is the same as the 25th
percentile.
– 25% of the scores are lower and
– 75% of the scores are higher than the lower
quartile.
The upper quartile is the same as the 75th
percentile.
– 75% of the scores are lower and
Correlation
Describes the strength of the relationship
between two (or more) variables
4
3
2
1
0
0 2 4 6
X
Negative Relationship
r will be a negative
8
7 number.
6
5
Y
4
3
2
1
0
0 2 4 6
X