METAL FORMING

OPEARTIONS

6/21/2019 4:35:41 PM 1
DEFINITION METAL FORMING
 Forming processes are those processes in which material is
plastically deformed to the desired shape and size. In production the
metal forming process is the continuation of continuous casting or
ingots process. Generally the shape of the material before forming
process are either in slab, billet or bloom

6/21/2019 4:35:41 PM 2
Contd….

 Most metal forming process will consist of a die which is a block

metal or other hard material with desired shape to deform the blank
(billet, bloom, slab or sheet metal). The methodology and shape of
the die depends on the forming process. Forming processes are
categorized between

 Bulk Deformation Processes

 Rolling
 Forging
 Extrusion
 Wire and bar drawing

 Sheet Metal Working

 Bending
 Deep drawing
 Cutting
 Miscellaneous processes

6/21/2019 4:35:41 PM 3
STRESSES IN METAL FORMING
 Stresses to plastically deform the metal are usually compressive
 Examples: rolling, forging, extrusion

 However, some forming processes

 Stretch the metal (tensile stresses)

 Others bend the metal (tensile and compressive)

 Still others apply shear stresses

6/21/2019 4:35:41 PM 4
MATERIAL PROPERTIES IN METAL FORMING

 Desirable material properties:

 Low yield strength

 High ductility

 These properties are affected by temperature:

 Ductility increases and yield strength decreases when work

temperature is raised

 Other factors:
 Strain rate and friction

6/21/2019 4:35:41 PM 5
TEMPERATURE IN METAL FORMING

 Any deformation operation can be accomplished with lower forces

and power at elevated temperature

 Three temperature ranges in metal forming:

 Cold working

 Warm working

 Hot working

6/21/2019 4:35:41 PM 6
 TEMPERATURE RANGE FOR HOT AND COLD
WORKING.

Process
T / Tm

Cold working <0.3

Warm working 0.3 to 0.5

Hot working >0.6

Metals can be plastically deformed (worked) at room, warm, or high

temperatures.
6/21/2019 4:35:41 PM 7
COLD WORK
 Plastically deforming a material at room temp results in:

 Change in the shape of the grains

 Strain (or work) hardening

 An increase in dislocation density

 Many cold forming processes are important mass production

operations

 Minimum or no machining usually required

 These operations are near net shape or net shape processes

6/21/2019 4:35:41 PM 8
 Increase of dislocations and
work hardening
Increase in the number of dislocations is a
quantification of work hardening. Plastic
deformation occurs as a consequence of work
being done on a material; enrgy is added to the
material. In addition, the energy is almost always
applied fast enough and in large enough magnitude
to not only move existing dislocations, but also to
produce a great number of new dislocations by
jarring or working the material sufficiently enough.
New dislocations are generated in proximity

6/21/2019 4:35:41 PM 9
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF COLD WORK

Advantages
 No heating required

 Better surface finish

 Superior dimensional control

 Better reproducibility and interchangeability

 Directional properties can be imparted into the metal

 Contamination problems are minimized

 increase in strength of the material.

6/21/2019 4:35:42 PM 10
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF COLD WORK

Disadvantages
 Greater forces are required

 Heavier and more powerful equipment and stronger

tooling are required
 Metal is less ductile

 Metal surfaces must be clean and scale-free

 Intermediate anneals may be required to compensate for

loss of ductility that accompanies strain hardening
 The imparted directional properties may be detrimental

 Undesirable residual stress may be produced

6/21/2019 4:35:42 PM 11
WARM WORKING
 Performed at temperatures above room temperature but below
recrystallization temperature

 Dividing line between cold working and warm working often

expressed in terms of melting point:
 0.3Tm, where Tm = melting point (absolute temperature) for metal

 ADVANTAGES
 Lower forces and power than in cold working
 More intricate work geometries possible
 Need for annealing may be reduced or eliminated

6/21/2019 4:35:42 PM 12
HOT WORKING

 Deformation at temperatures above the recrystallization temperature

 Recrystallization temperature = about one-half of melting point on

absolute scale
 In practice, hot working usually performed somewhat above

0.5Tm
 Metal continues to soften as temperature increases above 0.5Tm,

enhancing advantage of hot working above this level

6/21/2019 4:35:42 PM 13
ADVANTAGES OF HOT WORKING

 Workpart shape can be significantly altered

 Lower forces and power required

 Metals that usually fracture in cold working can be hot formed

 No strengthening of part occurs from work hardening

 Advantageous in cases when part is to be subsequently

processed by cold forming

6/21/2019 4:35:42 PM 14
ADVANTAGES OF HOT WORKING

 Porosity in metal is largely eliminated

 Impurities (inclusions) are broken up and distributed through the

metal

 Course grains are refined

 Due to grain refinement, the physical properties are generally

improved
 Ductility and resistance to impact are improved

 Strength is increased

6/21/2019 4:35:42 PM 15
DISADVANTAGES OF HOT WORKING

 High working temp. can result in rapid oxidation/scaling of surface =

poor surface finish

 Generally, close tolerances are hard to control

 Equipment and tool maintenance costs are high

6/21/2019 4:35:42 PM 16
BULK TRANSFORMATION IN
DETAIL

6/21/2019 4:35:42 PM 17
BULK DEFORMATION

 Metal forming operations which cause significant shape change by

deformation in metal parts whose initial form is bulk rather than
sheet

 Starting forms: cylindrical bars and billets, rectangular billets and slabs,
and similar shapes

 These processes work by stressing metal sufficiently to cause plastic

flow into desired shape

 Performed as cold, warm, and hot working operations

Bulk Deformation Processes Produces common shapes

6/21/2019 4:35:42 PM inexpensively PLUS Good mechanical properties 18
IMPORTANCE OF BULK DEFORMATION

 In hot working, significant shape change can be accomplished

 In cold working, strength can be increased during shape change

 Little or no waste - some operations are near net shape or net shape
processes
 The parts require little or no subsequent machining

6/21/2019 4:35:42 PM 19
FOUR BASIC BULK DEFORMATION PROCESSES

 Rolling – slab or plate is squeezed between opposing rolls

 Forging – work is squeezed and shaped between opposing dies

 Extrusion – work is squeezed through a die opening, thereby taking

the shape of the opening

 Wire and bar drawing – diameter of wire or bar is reduced by

pulling it through a die opening

6/21/2019 4:35:42 PM 20
 ROLLING
• It is a deformation process in which work thickness is reduced
by compressive forces exerted by two opposing rolls

The rolling process (specifically, flat rolling)

6/21/2019 4:35:42 PM 21
FUNCTION OF ROLLS
 The rotating rolls perform two main functions:

 Pull the work into the gap between them by friction between work part
and rolls

 Simultaneously squeeze the work to reduce cross section

6/21/2019 4:35:42 PM 22
TYPES OF ROLLING OPERATIONS

 Based on workpiece geometry :

 Flat rolling - used to reduce thickness of a rectangular cross

section
 Shape rolling - square cross section is formed into a shape

such as an I-beam
 Thread rolling

 Ring rolling

 Roll piercing

 Based on work temperature :

 Hot Rolling – most common due to the large amount of

deformation required and is above re-crystallization

temperature
 Cold rolling – produces finished sheet and plate stock and is

below re-crystallization temperature

6/21/2019 4:35:42 PM 23
PICTORIAL DESCRIPTION FLAT ROLLING

D=draft
To=initial thickness
Tf = final thickness

 Side view of flat rolling, indicating before and after thicknesses, work
6/21/2019 4:35:42 PM 24
velocities, angle of contact with rolls, and other features.
SHAPE ROLLING

 One of the primary first process to convert raw material into

finished product.

 Starting material (Ingots) are rolled into blooms, billets, or slabs

by feeding material through successive pairs of rolls.
 Bloom - square or rectangular cross section with a
thickness greater than 6” and a width no greater than 2x’s
the thickness
 Billets - square or circular cross section - - smaller than a
bloom
 Slabs - rectangular in shape (width is greater than 2x’s the
thickness), slabs are rolled into plate, sheet, and strips.

6/21/2019 4:35:42 PM 25
PICTORIAL DESCRIPTION SLABS, BLOOMS AND
BILLETS

6/21/2019 4:35:42 PM 26
SHAPE ROLLING PICTORIAL DESCRIPTION

6/21/2019 4:35:42 PM 27
 THREAD ROLLING
 Bulk deformation process used to form threads on cylindrical parts
by rolling them between two dies

 Most important commercial process for mass producing bolts and

screws

 Performed by cold working in thread rolling machines

 Advantages over thread cutting (machining):

 Higher production rates
 Better material utilization

 Stronger threads due to work hardening

 Better fatigue resistance due to compressive stresses introduced

by rolling

6/21/2019 4:35:42 PM 28
THREAD ROLLING PICTORIAL DESCRIPTION

Thread rolling with flat dies:

(1) start of cycle, and (2) end of cycle

6/21/2019 4:35:42 PM 29
 THREAD ROLLING PICTORIAL DESCRIPTION

6/21/2019 4:35:42 PM 30
RING ROLLING
 Deformation process in which a thick-walled ring of smaller diameter is
rolled into a thin-walled ring of larger diameter

 As thick-walled ring is compressed, deformed metal elongates,

causing diameter of ring to be enlarged

 Hot working process for large rings and cold working process for
smaller rings

 Applications: ball and roller bearing races, steel tires for railroad
wheels, and rings for pipes, pressure vessels, and rotating machinery

 Advantages: material savings, ideal grain orientation, strengthening

through cold working

6/21/2019 4:35:42 PM 31
RING ROLLING PICTORIAL DESCRRIPTION

• Ring rolling used to reduce the wall thickness and increase the
diameter of a ring: (1) start, and (2) completion of process

6/21/2019 4:35:42 PM 32
RING ROLLING PICTORIAL DESCRIPTION

6/21/2019 4:35:42 PM 33
FORGING

 Deformation process in which work is compressed between two dies

 Oldest of the metal forming operations, dating from about 5000 B C

 Components: engine crankshafts, connecting rods, gears, aircraft

structural components, jet engine turbine parts

 In addition, basic metals industries use forging to establish basic

form of large components that are subsequently machined to final
shape and size

6/21/2019 4:35:42 PM 34
CLASSIFICATION OF FORGING OPERATIONS
 Forging operation can be classified in number of ways. Lets
examine them briefly:
 Classification with respect to shape

 Drawn out: length increases, cross-section decreases

 Upset: Length decreases, cross-section increases

 Squeezed in closed compression dies: produces multidirectional

flow
 Classification with respect to temperature:
 Hot or warm forging – most common, due to the significant
deformation and the need to reduce strength and increase
ductility of work metal

 Cold forging - very less use in industry though advantage is

increased strength that results from strain hardening

6/21/2019 4:35:42 PM 35
FORGING PROCESSES

 Classification with respect to impact

 Forging hammer
 Forging press

 Classification with respect to die

 Open die - work is compressed between two flat dies, allowing metal to flow
laterally without constraint

 Close die/impression die-die surfaces contain a cavity or impression that

is imparted to work part, thus constraining metal flow - flash is created

 Flashless die – work piece is constrained and no excessive flash is

created.

 Common forging processes include: open-die forging, impression-die

forging roll forging, swaging, cogging,, press forging, automatic hot forging
and upsetting

 Lets examine these processes in detail

6/21/2019 4:35:42 PM 36
OPEN-DIE FORGING
 Open-die forging is also known as smith forging. In open-die forging,
a hammer strikes and deforms the work piece, which is placed on a
stationary anvil. Open-die forging gets its name from the fact that the
dies (the surfaces that are in contact with the work piece) do not
enclose the work piece, allowing it to flow except where contacted
by the dies. Therefore the operator needs to orient and position the
work piece to get the desired shape. The dies are usually flat in
shape, but some have a specially shaped surface for specialized
operations. For example, a die may have a round, concave, or
convex surface or be a tool to form holes or be a cut-off tool

 Deformation operation reduces height and increases diameter of

work

 Common names include upsetting or upset forging

6/21/2019 4:35:42 PM 37
OPEN DIE FORGING
 Simplest form of forging
 Dies have relatively simple shapes and usually performed on large
objects

Basic Shapes of Open Die Forging

Hot Open Forging

6/21/2019 4:35:42 PM 38
OPEN DIE FORGING – COGGING, EDGING,FULLERING
 Cogging is successive deformation of a bar along its length using an
open-die drop forge. It is commonly used to work a piece of raw
material to the proper thickness. Once the proper thickness is
achieved the proper width is achieved via edging.

6/21/2019 4:35:42 PM 39
CONTD…

 Fullering is a similar process that thins out sections of the forging

using a convex shaped die. These processes prepare the work
pieces for further forging processes
 Edging is the process of concentrating material using a concave
shaped open die

6/21/2019 4:35:42 PM 40
FULLERING, EDGING AND COGGING OPERATION-
PICTORIAL DESCRIPTION

6/21/2019 4:35:42 PM 41
OPEN DIE FORGING PICTORIAL VIEW

6/21/2019 4:35:42 PM 42
 OPEN DIE FORGING PICTORIAL VIEW

Hot Forging RAM

UPPER DIE

HOT SPECIMEN

LOWER DIE

6/21/2019 4:35:42 PM 43
IMPRESSION-DIE /CLOSED DIE FORGING

 Impression-die forging is also called closed-die forging. In

impression-die work metal is placed in a die resembling a mold,
which is attached to the anvil. Usually the hammer die is shaped
as well. The hammer is then dropped on the work piece,
causing the metal to flow and fill the die cavities. The hammer is
generally in contact with the work piece on the scale of
milliseconds. Depending on the size and complexity of the part
the hammer may be dropped multiple times in quick succession.

 Excess metal is squeezed out of the die cavities, forming what is

referred to as flash.

 Flash must be later trimmed from part, but it aides in forging

processes by getting cool rapidly and restricting further
formation of flash , hence forcing metal inside die cavity to
achieve desire shape.

6/21/2019 4:35:42 PM 44
CONSIDERATIONS - IMPRESSION-DIE FORGING PRACTICE

 Several forming steps often required, with separate die cavities for
each step

 Beginning steps redistribute metal for more uniform deformation

and desired metallurgical structure in subsequent steps

 Final steps bring the part to its final geometry

 Impression-die forging is often performed manually by skilled

operator under adverse conditions under adverse conditions

6/21/2019 4:35:42 PM 45
IMPRESSION/ CLOSED DIE FORGING PICTORIAL
VIEW

 Sequence in impression-die forging:

• (1) just prior to initial contact with raw work piece,
• (2) partial compression, and
• (3) final die closure, causing flash to form in gap
between die plates

6/21/2019 4:35:42 PM 46
IMPRESSION DIE FORGING PICTORIAL VIEW

6/21/2019 4:35:42 PM 47
IMPRESSION/CLOSED DIE FORGING PICTORIAL
VIEW

6/21/2019 4:35:42 PM 48
IMPRESSION-DIE FORGING
ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS
 Advantages compared to machining from solid stock:
 Higher production rates

 Conservation of metal (less waste)

 Greater strength

 Favorable grain orientation in the metal

 Limitations:
 Not capable of close tolerances

 Machining often required to achieve accuracies and features

needed, such as holes, threads, and mating surfaces that fit
with other components

6/21/2019 4:35:42 PM 49
IMPRESSION DIE FORGING - FLASHLESS FORGING
 One variation of impression-die forging is called flashless
forging, or true closed-die forging. In this type of forging the die
cavities are completely closed, which keeps the work piece from
forming flash. The major advantage to this process is that less
metal is lost to flash. Flash can account for 20 to 45% of the
starting material. The disadvantages of this process include
additional cost due to a more complex die design and the need
for better lubrication and work piece placement

 Starting work part volume must equal die cavity volume within
very close tolerance

 Process control more demanding than impression-die forging

 Best suited to part geometries that are simple and symmetrical

 Often classified as a precision forging Process/Near Net Shape

Process
6/21/2019 4:35:42 PM 50
COINING- SPECIAL APPLICATION IMPRESSION DIE
FORGING

6/21/2019 4:35:42 PM 51
ROLL FORGING
 Roll forging is a process where round or flat bar stock is reduced
in thickness and increased in length. Roll forging is performed
using two cylindrical or semi-cylindrical rolls, each containing one
or more shaped grooves. A heated bar is inserted into the rolls
and when it hits a stop the rolls rotate and the bar is
progressively shaped as it is rolled out of the machine. The work
piece is then transferred to the next set of grooves or turned
around and reinserted into the same grooves. This continues
until the desired shape and size is achieved.

 The advantage of this process is there is no flash and it imparts a

favorable grain structure into the work piece.

 Examples of products produced using this method include axles,

tapered levers and leaf springs.

6/21/2019 4:35:42 PM 52
AUTOMATIC HOT FORGING

 The automatic hot forging process involves feeding mill-length steel bars
(typically 7 m (23 ft) long) into one end of the machine at room temperature
and hot forged products emerge from the other end. This all occurs very
quickly; small parts can be made at a rate of 180 parts per minute (ppm)
and larger can be made at a rate of 90 ppm. The parts can be solid or
hollow, round or symmetrical, up to 6 kg (13 lb), and up to 18 cm (7.1 in) in
diameter
 The main advantages to this process are its high output rate and ability to
accept low cost materials. Little labor is required to operate the machinery.
There is no flash produced so material savings are between 20 and 30%
over conventional forging
 Examples of parts made by this process are: wheel hub unit
bearings, transmission gears, tapered roller bearing races, stainless
steel coupling flanges, and neck rings for LP gas cylinders. Manual
transmission gears are an example of automatic hot forging used in
conjunction with cold working

6/21/2019 4:35:42 PM 53
TRIMMING OPERATION PICTORIAL DESCRIPTION

6/21/2019 4:35:42 PM 54
EXTRUSION

 Compression forming process in which the work metal is forced to

flow through a die opening to produce a desired cross-sectional
shape

 Process is similar to squeezing toothpaste out of a toothpaste tube

 In general, extrusion is used to produce long parts of uniform cross-

sections

 Two basic types of extrusion:

 Direct extrusion

 Indirect extrusion

 Impact extrusion – high speed cold extrusion.

6/21/2019 4:35:42 PM 55
DIRECT EXTRUSION

 Also called forward extrusion

 As ram approaches die opening, a small portion of billet remains

that cannot be forced through die opening

 This extra portion, called the butt, must be separated from extruded
product by cutting it just beyond the die exit

 Starting billet cross section usually round, but final shape is

determined by die opening

6/21/2019 4:35:42 PM 56
DIRECT EXTRUSION PICTORIAL DESCRIPTION

DIRECT EXTRUSION

6/21/2019 4:35:42 PM 57
 (a) Direct extrusion to produce a hollow or semi-hollow cross-section;
(b) hollow and (c) semi-hollow cross- sections

6/21/2019 4:35:42 PM 58
PICTORIAL DESCRIPTION DIRECT EXTRUSION

6/21/2019 4:35:42 PM 59
INDIRECT EXTRUSION

 Also called backward extrusion and reverse extrusion

 Limitations of indirect extrusion are imposed by the lower rigidity of

hollow ram and difficulty in supporting extruded product as it exits
die

6/21/2019 4:35:42 PM 60
INDIRECT EXTRUSION PICTORIAL DESCRIPTION

Indirect extrusion to produce

(a) a solid cross-section and (b) a hollow cross-section

6/21/2019 4:35:42 PM 61
IMPACT EXTRUSION
 Impact Extrusion is commonly used to make collapsible tubes such
as toothpaste tubes, cans usually using soft materials such as
aluminum, lead, tin. Usually a small shot of solid material is placed
in the die and is impacted by a ram, which causes cold flow in the
material

6/21/2019 4:35:42 PM 62
IMPACT EXTRUSION PICTORIAL DESCRIPTION

6/21/2019 4:35:42 PM 63
ADVANTAGES OF EXTRUSION

 Variety of shapes possible, especially in hot extrusion

 Limitation: part cross-section must be uniform throughout length

 Grain structure and strength enhanced in cold and warm extrusion

 Close tolerances possible, especially in cold extrusion

 In some operations, little or no waste of material

6/21/2019 4:35:42 PM 64
HOT VS. COLD EXTRUSION

 Hot extrusion - prior heating of billet to above its re-crystallization

temperature

 This reduces strength and increases ductility of the metal,

permitting more size reductions and more complex shapes

 Steel is always extruded hot

 Cold extrusion - generally used to produce discrete parts

 The term impact extrusion is used to indicate high speed cold

extrusion

6/21/2019 4:35:42 PM 65
EXTRSUION DEFECTS PICTORIAL DESCRIPTION

6/21/2019 4:35:42 PM 66
EXTRUSION PRESSES

 Either horizontal or vertical

 Horizontal more common

 Extrusion presses - usually hydraulically driven, which is especially

suited to semi-continuous direct extrusion of long sections

 Mechanical drives - often used for cold extrusion of individual parts

6/21/2019 4:35:42 PM 67
WIRE AND BAR DRAWING

6/21/2019 4:35:42 PM 68
WIRE AND BAR DRAWING

 Cross-section of a bar, rod, or wire is reduced by pulling it through a

die opening

 Similar to extrusion except work is pulled through die in drawing (it is

pushed through in extrusion)

 Although drawing applies tensile stress, compression also plays a

significant role since metal is squeezed as it passes through die
opening

 Normal process involve

 Bar drawing
 Wire drawing
 Tube drawing

6/21/2019 4:35:42 PM 69
WIRE AND BAR DRAWING GENERAL PRINCIPLE
DESCRIPTION

6/21/2019 4:35:42 PM 70
BAR DRAWING

 Accomplished as a single-draft operation - the stock is pulled

through one die opening

 Beginning stock has large diameter and is a straight cylinder

 This necessitates a batch type operation

6/21/2019 4:35:42 PM 71
BAR DRAWING BENCH

Hydraulically operated draw bench for drawing metal bars.

6/21/2019 4:35:42 PM 72
WIRE DRAWING

 Continuous drawing machines consisting of multiple draw dies

(typically 4 to 12) separated by accumulating drums

 Each drum (capstan) provides proper force to draw wire stock

through upstream die

 Each die provides a small reduction, so desired total reduction is

achieved by the series

 Annealing (Heat Treatment Operation) sometimes required

between dies

6/21/2019 4:35:42 PM 73
WIRE DRAWING PICTORIAL VIEW

Continuous drawing of wire

6/21/2019 4:35:42 PM 74
WIRE DRAWING VS. BAR DRAWING

 Difference between bar drawing and wire drawing is stock size

 Bar drawing - large diameter bar and rod stock

 Wire drawing - small diameter stock - wire sizes down to 0.03 mm

(0.001 in.) are possible

 Although the mechanics are the same, the methods, equipment, and
even terminology are different

6/21/2019 4:35:42 PM 75
TUBE DRAWING

6/21/2019 4:35:42 PM 76
TUBE DRAWING WITH NO MANDREL-TUBE SINKING
PICTORIAL DESCRIPTION

6/21/2019 4:35:42 PM 77
TUBE DRAWING WITH MANDREL PICTORIAL
DESCRIPTION

6/21/2019 4:35:42 PM 78
DRAWING PRACTICE AND PRODUCTS

 Drawing practice:
 Usually performed as cold working

 Most frequently used for round cross-sections

 Products:
 Wire: electrical wire; wire stock for fences, coat hangers, and
shopping carts
 Rod stock for nails, screws, rivets, and springs

 Bar stock: metal bars for machining, forging, and other processes

6/21/2019 4:35:42 PM 79