NAME : ELFRIDA BAKARA

NPM : 10120348
GROUP :G
LECTURE : GRAMMAR III
LECTURER : MR. SABAM MARPAUNG S.PD
 Defenition Of Grammar

 Grammar is the structural foundation of our ability to express ourselves. The more we are
aware of how it works, the more we can monitor the meaning and effectiveness of the way
we and others use language. It can help foster precision, detect ambiguity, and exploit the
richness of expression available in English. And it can help everyone--not only teachers of
English, but teachers of anything, for all teaching is ultimately a matter of getting to grips
with meaning.
 Grammar is the science which treats of the nature of words, their forms, and their uses and
relations in the sentence.
 Grammar is used as a term to refer to the prescriptive rules of a given language, which
may change over time or be open to debate.
 Grammar is a field of linguistics that involves all the various things that make up the rules
of language. Subfields of linguistics that are considered a part of grammar include syntax,
phonetics, morphology, and semantics.
 Grammar is the science of letter; hence the science of using words correctly.
 Grammar is the system of a language.
Function Of Grammar
 Indirect Objects: The indirect object is the secondary receiver of the
action. In the sentence "Alfred carried the sword to the battle," "battle"
is the indirect object (and "sword," which is receiving the action, is the
direct object). Indirect objects are often called "objects of prepositions"
because in Modern English we use prepositions to indicate the sort of
action being secondarily received: in the phrases "to the battle," "with
the sword," "under the thorn tree," "by the river" "battle," "sword,"
"tree," and "river" are the objects of their respective prepositions.

 Function Words: What we are calling "function words" are

prepositions and conjunctions that don't mean anything in themselves
but serve to indicate the ways other words relate to each other.
Prepositions indicate relationships, and conjunctions join things
together. In the sentences "Alfred fought with the vikings and won the
battle by the thorn tree," "with" and "by" are prepositions that indicate
relationships (where the battle was fought and whom it was fought
against) and "and" indicates that two parts of the sentence are joined
together.
 Genitives are an important sub-set of modifiers in Old English.
Genitives are possessives: they indicate ownership. A noun with a
genitive ending, like the Modern English 's, is used as an adjective
to modify another noun. In the sentence "Alfred's sword was old,"
"Alfred's" is a genitive: a noun (Alfred) has had the genitive ending
('s) added to it. A good rule of thumb for dealing with the genitive is
to translate it as "of X" where "X" is the noun that has the genitive
ending. Thus "Alfred's sword" could be translated as "the sword of
Alfred.“

 Subjects: The subject is the "doer" or "actor." In the sentence

"Alfred ate the cakes," "Alfred" is the subject.
1. Parts Of Speech

1. NOUN
 A noun is often defined as a word which names a person, place or thing. Here are
some examples of nouns: boy, river, friend, Mexico, triangle, day, school, truth,
university, idea, John F. Kennedy, movie, aunt, vacation, eye, dream, flag, teacher,
class, grammar. John F. Kennedy is a noun because it is the name of a person;
Mexico is a noun because it is the name of a place; and boy is a noun because it is
the name of a thing. Some grammar books divide nouns into 2 groups - proper
nouns and common nouns. Proper nouns are nouns which begin with a capital
letter because it is the name of a specific or particular person place or thing. Some
examples of proper nouns are: Mexico, John F. Kennedy, Atlantic Ocean,
February, Monday, New York City, Susan, Maple Street, Burger King. If you see a
word beginning with a capital letter in in the middle of a sentence, it is probably a
proper noun. Most nouns are common nouns and do not begin with a capital
letter.
 Many nouns have a special plural form if there is more than one. For example, we
say one book but two books. Plurals are usually formed by adding an -s (books)
or -es (boxes) but some plurals are formed in different ways (child - children,
person - people, mouse - mice, sheep - sheep).
 For example, the word train is a common, concrete, countable, singular noun.
Noun Type
 Common Nouns name people, places or things that are not specific.
e.g : man, mountain, state, ocean, country, building, cat, airline
 Proper Nouns name specific people, places, or things.
e.g : Walt Disney, Mount Kilimanjaro, Minnesota, Atlantic Ocean, Australia, Empire
State Building, Fluffy, Sun Country.
 Abstract Nouns name nouns that you can't perceive with your five sense.
e.g : love, wealth, happiness, pride, fear, religion, belief, history, communication.
 Concrete Nouns name nouns that you can perceive with your five senses.
e.g : house, ocean, Uncle Mike, bird, photograph, banana, eyes, light, sun, dog, suitcase,
flowers
 Countable Nouns name nouns that you can count.
e.g : bed, cat, movie, train, country, book, phone, match, speaker, clock, pen,
David, violin
 Uncountalbe Nouns name nouns that you can't count.
e.g : milk, rice, snow, rain, water, food, music
 Compound Nouns are made up of two or more words.
e.g : tablecloth, eyeglasses, New York, photograph, daughter-in-law, pigtails,
sunlight, snowflake
 Collective Nouns refer to things or people as a unit.
e.g : bunch, audience, flock, team, group, family, band, village.
 Singular Nouns name one person, place, thing, or idea.
e.g : cat, sock, ship, hero, monkey, baby, match
 Plural Nouns name more than one person, place, thing, or idea.
e.g : cats, socks, ships, heroes, monkeys, babies, matches
2. PRONOUN
 A pronoun is often defined as a word which can be used instead of a noun. For
example, instead of saying John is a student, the pronoun he can be used in place of
the noun John and the sentence becomes He is a student. We use pronouns very
often, especially so that we do not have to keep on repeating a noun. This chapter is
about the kind of pronoun called a personal pronoun because it often refers to a
person. Like nouns, personal pronouns sometimes have singular and plural forms (I-
we, he-they).
 Unlike nouns, personal pronouns sometimes have different forms for masculine/male,
feminine/female and neuter (he-she-it). Also unlike nouns, personal pronouns have
different forms depending on if they act as subjects or objects (he-him, she-her). A
subject is a word which does an action and usually comes before the verb, and an
object is a word that receives an action and usually comes after the verb. For
example, in the sentence Yesterday Susan called her mother, Susan is the subject and
mother is the object. The pronoun she can be used instead of Susan and the pronoun
her can be used instead of mother. The form of a personal pronoun also changes
according to what person is referred to. Person is used here as a grammar word and
means:
1st person or the self (I, me, we),
2nd person or the person spoken to (you),
3rd person or the person spoken about (he, she, him, her, they, them).
Example : Tara is Indian.
She is beautiful.
 There is also a possessive form of the pronoun. Just as we can make a
noun possessive as in the sentence That is my father's book to mean That is
the book of my father, we can make the pronoun possessive and say That
book is his. There are possessive adjective forms (such as my, your, his,
her etc.) that are discussed with other adjectives in chapter .
Possessive pronouns can stand by themselves without nouns, but
possessive adjectives, like other adjectives, are used together with nouns.
 There is also an intensive form of the pronoun which intensifies or
emphasizes the noun that it comes after as in the sentence I myself saw
him. The reflexive form of the pronoun looks exactly like the intensive
form but is used when the subject and object of a verb refers to the same
person as in the sentence I saw myself in the mirror.
Singular
Person Subject Object Possessive Intensive
Reflexive
1st I me mine myself

2nd you you yours yourself

3rd he/she/it him/her/it his/hers himself/herself

/itself
Demonstrative
Pronouns
represent a thing or Singular Plural
things.
Refers to things that are this
these
nearby
Refers to things that are
that those
far away

Indefinite Pronouns
refer to something that is
unspecified.
Singular anybody, anyone, anything, each,
either, everybody, everyone,
everything, neither, nobody, no one,
nothing, one, somebody, someone,
something
Plural both, few, many, several

Singular or Plural all, any, most, none, some

3. VERB
Verb is often the most important step in understanding the meaning of a senA verb is
often defined as a word which shows action or state of being. The verb is the heart of
a sentence - every sentence must have a verb. Recognizing the tence. In the sentence
The dog bit the man, bit is the verb and the word which shows the action of the
sentence. In the sentence The man is sitting on a chair, even though the action doesn't
show much activity, sitting is the verb of the sentence. In the sentence She is a smart
girl, there is no action but a state of being expressed by the verb is. The word be is
different from other verbs in many ways but can still be thought of as a verb.

Examples: Robert will eat the hamburger. (action)

Sara is happy. (condition or state of being)

 There are three main types of verbs: action verbs, linking verbs, and helping verbs
(also called auxiliary verbs).
Action Verbs
 As their name implies, these verbs show action.
 Keep in mind that action doesn't always mean movement.
Example:
Talia thought about bears.
In that example, the verb thought does not show movement, but it is a mental action,
and therefore, it is still a verb.
There are many, many action verbs. Here is random assortment of some action verbs.

clean Cut Drive eat

fly Go Live Make
Play Read Run Shower
Sleep Smile Stop Sweep
Swim Think Throw Trip
walk Wash Work Write

Linking Verbs

These types of verbs link the subject of a sentence with a noun or adjective.

Example:
Lana became a famous equestrian.
If you count all of the forms of "to be" as one word, there are 13 linking verbs.

Forms of be be, am, is, are, was, were, been, being

Other Linking Verbs appear, become, feel, grow, look, seem, remain,
smell, sound, stay, taste, turn
Helping Verbs
 These do just what their name implies. They help action verbs or linking verbs. There
can be more than one of them used in a single verb phrase.
Example: (used with the action verb love)
Greta will love these sausages.
There are only 24 helping verbs.
Be Am Is Are
Was were Been Being
Have Has Had Could
Should Would May Might

must Shall Can Will

Do did does having

Irregular verb

Present Past perfect

Go Went Gone

See Saw Seen

Eat Ate Eaten
4. ADVERB
 An adverb describes a verb, adjective, or other adverb. Adverbs usually tell how (for
example: slowly), when (e.g., lately), where (e.g., there), how much (e.g., very), or why
(e.g., therefore).
Example: He always chews his gum loudly.
 Adverbs are words that describe - or modify - verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs.
 They tell us how, when, where, to what extent, and why.

Adverbs that tell us How?

A: absentmindedly, adoringly, awkwardly
B: beautifully, briskly, brutally
C: carefully, cheerfully, competitively
E: eagerly, effortlessly, extravagantly
G: girlishly, gracefully, grimly
L: lazily, lifelessly, loyally
Q: quietly, quickly, quizzically
R: really, recklessly, remorsefully, ruthlessly
S: savagely, sloppily, so, stylishly
U: unabashedly, unevenly, urgently
W: well, wishfully, worriedly
 We have seen that an adjective is a word that gives more information about a
noun or pronoun. An adverb is usually defined as a word that gives more
information about a verb, an adjective or another adverb. Adverbs describe
verbs, adjectives and adverbs in terms of such qualities as time, frequency and
manner. In the sentence Sue runs fast, fast describes how or the manner in
which Sue runs. In the sentence Sue runs very fast, very describes the adverb
fast and gives information about how fast Sue runs.

 Most, but not all adverbs end in -ly as in But not all words that end in -ly are
adverbs (ugly is an adjective, supply and reply can both be nouns or verbs).
Many times an adjective can be made into an adverb by adding -ly as in nicely,
quickly, completely, sincerely.

 Adverbs of time tell when something happens and adverbs of frequency tell how
often something happens.
 Below are some common adverbs of time and frequency which you
should learn:

Adverbs of Time Frequency

Do it now. I always do my homework

I will see you then. We sometimes get confused.

They will be here soon. He usually gets good grades.

I can't meet you today. I never went skiing.

Let's go tomorrow.
She rarely eats a big breakfast.
Adverbs that tell us When?
A: after, afterwards, annually
B: before
D: daily
N: never, now
S: soon, still
T: then, today, tomorrow
W: weekly, when
Y: yesterday

Adverbs that tell us Where?

A: abroad, anywhere, away
E: everywhere
H: here, home
I: in, inside
O: out, outside
S: somewhere
T: there
U: underground, upstairs
Adverbs that tell us To what extent?
E: extremely
N: not (this includes n't)
Q: quite
R: rather, really
T: terribly, too
V: very

Comparative and Superlative Adverbs

Positive Superlative comparative

Badly Worse Worst

Careful More careful Most careful

Big Bigger Biggest

Good Better Best

Clever Cleverer Cleverest

Beautiful More beautiful Most beautiful

5. ADJECTIVE
 An adjective describes or limits a noun.
An adjective is often defined as a word which describes or gives more information
about a noun or pronoun. Adjectives describe nouns in terms of such qualities as
size, color, number, and kind. In the sentence The lazy dog sat on the rug, the word
lazy is an adjective which gives more information about the noun dog. We can
add more adjectives to describe the dog as well as in the sentence The lazy, old,
brown dog sat on the rug. We can also add adjectives to describe the rug as in the
sentence The lazy, old, brown dog sat on the beautiful, expensive, new rug. The
adjectives do not change the basic meaning or structure of the sentence, but they do
give a lot more information about the dog and the rug. As you can see in the example
above, when more than one adjective is used, a comma (,) is used between the
adjectives.
Examples: tall, young, pretty, light, blue, new, white (The tall, young, pretty girl is
wearing a light blue dress with her new white shoes.) (NOT: ...a light dress blue
with her new shoes white.)Adjectives and adverbs have three degrees of
comparison: positive, comparative, superlative.
Examples:
Mary has a smart child. Sara has a smarter child. Nancy has the smartest child.
Robert is an intelligent student. William is more intelligent than Robert. Kim is the
most intelligent student.
The red car is expensive. The white car is less expensive. The blue car is the least
expensive.
Proper Adjectives
 These are formed from proper nouns.
 They always begin with a capital letter.

Proper noun Proper adjective

America American
Canada Canadian
Britian British
China Chinese

Articles
There are only three of these special types of adjectives: a, an , and the.

Regular Comparatives and Superlatives

Most adjectives can be described in degrees. This means that something

can have more or less of the adjective's quality.
Regular comparatives end in -er or start with more.
Regular superlatives end in -est or start with most.
 Positive Comparative Superlative
Funny Funnier Funniest

Pretty Prettier Prettier

Organized More Organized Most Organized
Dry Drier Driest
Hot Hotter Hottest

Irregular Comparatives and Superlatives

These can still be given in degrees, but they don't follow the patterns listed above.

Positive Comparative Superlative

bad worse worst

good better best

little less least

many more most

Adjectives That Cannot Be Comparative or Superlative
 Some adjectives don't have degrees. There is only one level of these adjectives. (For
example, something cannot be more half than something else. It either is half, or it
isn't.)
Entire Fatal Final
Half Main Pregrant

6. PREPOSITION

A preposition usually shows the relationship between a noun or pronoun and another part
of a sentence.
There are many prepositions, including: about, above, across, after, against, along, among,
around, as, at, before, behind, below, beneath, between, beyond, beside, besides, by, down,
during, except, from, for, in, inside, into, like, near, next, of, off, on, out, out of, outside,
over, past, round, since, than, through, till, to, toward, towards, under, underneath, unless,
until, upon, up, with, without.
A preposition is a word which shows relationships among other words in the sentence. The
relationships include direction, place, time, cause, manner and amount. In the sentence She
went to the store, to is a preposition which shows direction. In the sentence He came by
bus, by is a preposition which shows manner. In the sentence They will be here at three
o'clock, at is a preposition which shows time and in the sentence It is under the table, under
is a preposition which shows place.
without.
 Prepositions of time:
at two o'clock
on Wednesday
in an hour, in January; in 1992
for a day
 Prepositions of place:
at my house
in New York, in my hand
on the table
near the library
across the street
under the bed
between the books

7. CONJUNCTION
 A conjunction connects words, phrases, and clauses.

 Coordinate conjunctions connect words, phrases, and clauses of equal

value: and, or, nor, but (and sometimes for). e.g., The dog and the cat are
hungry.
 Correlative conjunctions occur in pairs: both-and, either-or, neither-nor, not
only-but also. e.g., Both the fish and the snake are thirsty.
 Subordinate conjunctions connect unequal clauses (dependent clauses with
independent clauses). They include: after, although, as, because, before, if,
since, than, though, unless, until, when, where, while. e.g., After they ate,
they had dessert.
Conjunctions are words that join two or more words, phrases, or clauses.

Coordinating Conjunctions
 There are only seven of these.
Example: cookies and milk
 Here they are:
 for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so
 You can remember them using the acronym FANBOYS.

Subordinating Conjunctions
 There are many subordinating conjunctions. This list does not include all of them.
Example: I will eat broccoli after I eat this cookie.
 A: after, although, as, as if, as long as, as much as, as soon as, as though
 B: because, before, by the time
 E: even if, even though
 I: if, in order that, in case
 L: lest
 O: once, only if
 P: provided that
 S: since, so that
 T: than, that, though, till
 U: unless, until
 W: when, whenever, where, wherever, while
 whether... or
8. INTERJECTION
 An interjection is a word that expresses feeling or emotion; usually it is followed by an exclamation
mark.
Examples: Oh! Ah! Wow! Darn! Gosh! Golly! Gee! Ow! Ouch! Yikes! Holy
moly! Yippee! Hooray! Boo! Whew!
Interjections are words that show emotion. They are not grammatically related to the rest of the sentence.
Thout further ado, here is the list of interjections:
A: aha, ahem, ahh, ahoy, alas, arg, aw
B: bam, bingo, blah, boo, bravo, brrr
C: cheers, congratulations
D: dang, drat, darn, duh
E: eek, eh, encore, eureka
F: fiddlesticks
G: gadzooks, gee, gee whiz, golly, goodbye, goodness, good grief, gosh
H: ha-ha, hallelujah, hello, hey, hmm, holy buckets, holy cow,
holy smokes, hot dog, huh?, humph, hurray
O: oh, oh dear, oh my, oh well, ooops, ouch, ow
P: phew, phooey, pooh, pow
R: rats
S: shh, shoo
T: thanks, there, tut-tut
U: uh-huh, uh-oh, ugh
W: wahoo, well, whoa, whoops, wow
Y: yeah, yes, yikes, yippee, yo, yuck
2. Active Voice, Passive Voice
There are two special forms for verbs called voice:
 Active voice
 Passive voice
The active voice is the "normal" voice. This is the voice that we use most of the
time. You are probably already familiar with the active voice. In the active voice, the
object receives the action of the verb:

Subject Verb Object

Active Dogs Eat The bone
Active We Read The book

The passive voice is less usual. In the passive voice, the subject receives the
action of the verb:

Subject Verb Object

Pasive The bone Are eaten By dogs
Pasive The book Is read By us
Passive Voice
 The passive voice is less usual than the active voice. The active voice is the
"normal" voice. But sometimes we need the passive voice. In this lesson we look
at how to construct the passive voice, when to use it and how to conjugate it.
Construction of the Passive Voice
 The structure of the passive voice is very simple:
 subject + auxiliary verb (be) + main verb (past participle)
 The main verb is always in its past participle form.
Look at these examples:
 (+) Water is drunk by everyone.
(--) Water is not drunk by everyone.
(?) Is water drunk by everyone ?
 (+) I am paid in euro.
(--) I am not paid in euro.
(?) Am I paid in euro ?
Use of the Passive Voice
 We use the passive when:
 we want to make the active object more important
 we do not know the active subject

3. Main Verbs

 Main verbs are also called "lexical verbs".

 Main verbs have meaning on their own (unlike helping verbs). There are thousands of main
verbs, and we can classify them in several ways:
Transitive and intransitive verbs
 A transitive verb takes a direct object: Somebody killed the President. An intransitive verb does
not have a direct object: He died. Many verbs, like speak, can be transitive or intransitive.

Look at these examples:

transitive:
 I saw an elephant.
 We are watching TV.
 He speaks English.
intransitive:
 He has arrived.
 John goes to school.
 She speaks fast.
Dynamic and stative verbs
 Some verbs describe action. They are called "dynamic", and can be used with
continuous tenses. Other verbs describe state (non-action, a situation). They are called
"stative", and cannot normally be used with continuous tenses (though some of them
can be used with continuous tenses with a change in meaning).
 dynamic verbs (examples):
 hit, explode, fight, run, go
 stative verbs (examples):
 be
 like, love, prefer, wish
 impress, please, surprise
 hear, see, sound
 belong to, consist of, contain, include, need
 appear, resemble, seem
Regular and irregular verbs
 This is more a question of vocabulary than of grammar. The only real difference
between regular and irregular verbs is that they have different endings for their past
tense and past participle forms. For regular verbs, the past tense ending and past
participle ending is always the same: -ed. For irregular verbs, the past tense ending
and the past participle ending is variable, so it is necessary to learn them by heart.
regular verbs: base, past tense, past participle
 look, looked, looked
 work, worked, worked
irregular verbs: base, past tense, past participle
 buy, bought, bought
 cut, cut, cut
do, did, done

4. Coordination
 When we coordinate things, whether we're talking about our schedules or our clothing, we make
connections--or, as the dictionary says in a more fanciful way, "bring things together in a common and
harmonious action." The same idea applies when we talk about coordination in grammar.
 A common way to connect related words, phrases, and even entire clauses is to coordinate them--that is,
connect them with a coordinating conjunction such as "and" or "but." The following short paragraph from
Ernest Hemingway's Another Country contains several coordinated words, phrases, and clauses.
 In most of his novels and short stories, Hemingway relies heavily (some readers might say too heavily) on
such basic conjunctions as "and" and "but." The other coordinating conjunctions are yet, or, nor, for, and
so.
 Similar to these basic conjunctions are the following paired conjunctions (sometimes called correlative
conjunctions):
 both . . . and
either . . . or
neither . . . nor
not . . . but
not . . . nor
not only . . . but (also)
whether . . . or
5.Going to
Intention
 We use the special going to construction when we have the intention to
do something before we speak. We have already made a decision before
speaking.
Look at these examples:
 I have won $1,000. I am going to buy a new TV.
 We're not going to see my mother tomorrow.
 When are you going to go on holiday?
 In these examples, we had an intention or plan before speaking. The
decision was made before we spoke.
Prediction
 We often use going to to make a prediction about the future. Our
prediction is based on evidence. We are saying what seems sure
to happen. Here are some examples:
 The sky is very black. It is going to snow.
 It's 8.30! You're going to miss the train!
 I crashed the company car. My boss isn't going to be very happy!
 In these examples, the present situation (black sky/the
time/damaged car) gives us a good idea of what is going to
happen.
 We use will for prediction when we have no real evidence: "It
will rain tomorrow." (It's my feeling but I can't be sure.)
 We use going to for prediction when there is some real evidence:
"It's going to rain." (There's a big, black cloud in the sky and if it
doesn't rain I'll be very surprised.)
6.English Conditionals

 There are several structures in English that are called conditionals.

 "Condition" means "situation or circumstance". If a particular condition is true, then
a particular result happens.
 If y = 10 then 2y = 20
 If y = 3 then 2y = 6
 There are three basic conditionals that we use very often. There are some more
conditionals that we do not use so often.
 In this lesson, we will look at the three basic conditionals as well as the so-called
zero conditional. We'll finish with a quiz to check your understanding.
 People sometimes call conditionals "IF" structures or sentences, because there is
usually (but not always) the word "if" in a conditional sentence.

7.Questions or Interrogative

 What is a question?
 A statement is a sentence that gives information. A question is a sentence that asks
for information. Questions are also called "interrogative".
Basic Question Structure
 The basic structure of a question in English is very simple:
 auxiliary verb + subject + main verb
e.g : Do you like marry ?
Are they playing football ?

Basic Question Types

There are 3 basic types of question:
 Yes/No Questions (the answer to the question is "Yes" or "No")
 Question Word Questions (the answer to the question is "Information")
 Choice Questions (the answer to the question is "in the question")

8.Modal Verbs (modal auxiliaries)

 Modal auxiliary verbs may sound difficult but in fact they're easy. They are invariable (no
conjugation). And the main verb is always the "bare infinitive" (the infinitive without
"to").
 Can, Could, Be able to
Can and could are modal auxiliary verbs. Be able to is NOT an auxiliary verb (it uses the
verb be as a main verb). We include be able to here for convenience.
 Have to, Must, Must not/Mustn't
Must is a modal auxiliary verb. Have to is NOT an auxiliary verb (it uses the verb have as
a main verb). We include have to here for convenience.