FOUNDATION IN

TESOL UNIT 2
Study of the English Language

51TALK COURSE REVIEWER TESOL + TEYL

 FOUNDATION IN TESOL UNIT 2
Study of the English Language

SUMMARY

INTRODUCTION
Recommended grammar textbooks

Azar, Betty. Fundamentals of English Grammar with Answer Key Third

Edition. United States: Pearson Education, 2003.

Murphy, Raymond. English Grammar in Use Fourth Edition. United Kingdom:

Cambridge University Press, 2012.

Parrott, Martin. Grammar for English Language Teachers, Second Edition .

United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press, 2010.

Thomson, AJ and Martinet, AV. Practical English Grammar Fourth Edition.

United Kingdom: Oxford University Press, 1996.

Swan, Michael. Practical English Usage, 4th edition. United Kingdom: Oxford
University Press, 2017.
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 WHAT IS GRAMMAR?

“… the way a language manipulates and combines

words (or bits of words) in order to form longer units
of meaning"
Penny Ur in Grammar Practice
Activities (1988)

the study of
form/structure;
a means of
involves syntax communicating linked to
(the rules for communicative
sentence information; the
more context, the functions based on
structure) and less grammar a speaker's
morphology (the intention
rules for word required
formation)

MODULE 1: ENGLISH WORD CLASSES 1

English word classes: words belonging to different grammatical or word classes or parts of
speech:
 Nouns  Verbs  Quantifiers
 Pronouns  Adverbs  Prepositions
 Adjectives  Articles  Conjunctions

Different types of nouns

TYPES OF NOUNS DESCRIPTION
Common vs proper Common nouns - not capitalized
Proper nouns - capitalized
Concrete vs Concrete nouns - can be seen or touched
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abstract Abstract nouns - cannot be seen nor touched

Countable vs Countable nouns – can be counted, can be used with definite
uncountable and indefinite articles
Uncountable nouns – cannot be counted and cannot be used
with articles, use quantifiers to measure
 Singular vs plural
Compound nouns
Collective nouns
Possessive nouns
Singular – only 1 (boy, song, etc.)
Plural – two or more nouns (boys, songs, etc.)
two or more words combined: daylight, battlefield, etc.
group of people or things: company, family, etc.
indicate ownership: brother’s, Mary’s

Types of pronouns
TYPES OF PRONOUNS
Personal pronouns:
something or someone already
mentioned
Possessive pronouns: show who a
person or thing belongs to
Demonstrative pronouns: used to point
to or identify a noun or other pronoun
Reflexive pronouns: the object of
the verb when the person or thing
affected by an action is the one
doing it
EXAMPLES
Subject pronouns (I, we, you, they, he,
she, it): used as the subject of a verb
Object pronouns (me, us, you, them, him,
her, it): used as an object of a verb
mine, yours, his, hers, theirs, its, ours
this, that, these, those
myself, herself, yourself, yourselves,
ourselves, himself, itself

ITS VS IT’S
its = possessive pronoun [the house and its furniture; the government and its policies]

it’s = it is [It’s a pleasure to meet you. = It is a pleasure to meet you. It’s cold. = It is cold. ]

Types of adjectives

Qualitative adjectives: qualities of nouns Specifying adjectives: qualify what is being

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referred to
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Classifying adjectives: types

Compound adjectives: made up of two or
Color adjectives more words

Emphasizing adjectives: give emphasis to Demonstrative adjectives: modify nouns

descriptions
 Adjective order

qualitative
colour
classifying a small red brick
adjective adjective
cottage

age shape nationality material an old round French

mirror

opinion size quality age shape

cute young children

Comparatives and superlatives

FORM EXAMPLE
One-syllable adjective: add -er or -est nicer - nicest
Two-syllable adjective ending in ‘y’: prettier – prettiest
add -er or -est after (‘y’ usually turns
into ‘i’)
Two-syllable adjective not ending in more charming – the most charming
‘y’: add ‘more’ or ‘the most’ in front
Three+ syllable adjective: add more beautiful – the most beautiful
‘more’ or ‘the most’ in front more expensive – the most expensive
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 What adverbs do

when, where, why or

how something happens verbs

Adverbs modify
adjectives

other modifiers

other adverbs

Types of adverbs

TYPE OF ADVERB EXAMPLES

Adverbs of frequency sometimes; never
Adverbs of manner quickly; madly
Adverbs of time and place there; now
Adverbs of degree very; incredibly; quite
Adverbs of relative time yet; shortly; recently
Adverbs of quantity a bit; a lot
Adverbs of of focusing only; as well; even
Adverbs of focusing seemingly; luckily
[Adapted from Grammar for English Language Teachers by Martin Parrott]
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 MODULE 2: ENGLISH WORD CLASSES 2
The articles

Definite article: the

An article is a determiner used in

front of a noun to make a specific or
non-specific reference.

Indefinite articles: a or an

refer to something The house on the corner is mine. (not any house, the
or someone one on the corner)
already
mentioned, or that
is clear to the I am going to the Shakespeare play. (not any play, the
reader or listener: Shakespeare one).

make a statement
The definite article about all the things
the is used to belonging to one My favorite animal is the dog.
type (countable
nouns only):
the people of a country (the English, the Italian)

systems or services (the tram, the Internet)

refer to:
professions (the doctor; the German athlete)

musical instruments (the piano, the violin).

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 I want to buy a house. (ANY house)

I want to buy the house next door. (not any house,

a specific house)
are used to refer to
something
undetermined Let’s go see a movie. (ANY movie)

Let’s go see the movie with Emily Blunt. (not any

movie, a specific one starring Emily Blunt)

The indefinite
articles a and NEVER "a love"
an are not used with
single, countable NEVER "a rice"
nouns:
NEVER "a coffee"

are replaced with She went to a soccer

"the" after the first match. The match was
reference: fun!

Exceptions to using “a” or “an”

We use “a” before a word that starts with a consonant (a book, a house, a pirate), and we use
“an” before a word that starts with a vowel (an apple, an egg, an ogre). This is a phonetic
rule, i.e. it is easier to say ”an apple” than it would be to say ”a apple”. However, there are
a few exceptions:

1.1 Use “an” in front of “h” when the “h” is not pronounced (and consequently sounds
like a vowel): an heir, an honour, an hour.

1.2 Use “a” in front of “u” when it is pronounced like “you”: a unicorn, a usual
answer, a universe.

1.3 Use “an” in front of abbreviations and acronyms when the first letter starts with a
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vowel sound: an FBI agent, an ASX report, an MD.

 Quantifiers

Quantifiers are a class of determiners and are used to show quantity, i.e. they answer the
question “how much?” of something or “how many?” things or people we are referring to.

Some of the most common quantifiers are:

any
some
much
any
little
all
several
a few
enough
a lot of
no
both

Some quantifiers are used only with countable nouns,

some only with uncountable nouns, some with singular
nouns, some with plural nouns, and some, with any
combination of the above.

Quantifier Singular nouns Plural nouns Uncountable nouns

(C) (C) (U)
all – Yes Yes
any No Yes Yes
both * Yes *
each Yes – –
enough – Yes Yes
every Yes – –
few/a few/fewer – Yes –
little/a – – Yes
little/less
lots of / a lot of – Yes Yes
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many – Yes –
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more – Yes Yes

no Yes Yes Yes
several – Yes –
some – Yes Yes
 Prepositions

Prepositions are basically words that show the relationship or connection between two other
words or phrases. Some of the most common prepositions—and usually the ones ESL/EFL
students learn first—are prepositions of place and time, such as in, on, under, in front,
behind, beneath, between, beside, next to, at, etc.

The sugar is in the kitchen. (shows the relationship between “sugar” and “kitchen”)

The game is at 5 pm. (shows the relationship between “game” and “5pm”)

The party is on Saturday. (shows the relationship between “party” and “Saturday”)

SOME COMMON PREPOSITIONS

PLACE POSITION DIRECTION TIME OTHER
above beyond on after except
across by opposite before as
along down out (of) at like
among from outside by about
at in over for with
away from in front of around during without
behind inside through from by
below into to in for
beside near towards
between off under
up

Prepositions of place: Notice that in is usually used for enclosed spaces, on is usually used for
surfaces, and at is usually used for a specific point.

Prepositions of time: Notice that at is used for a precise time, in is used for months, years
and other long periods of time, and on is used for days and dates.
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 Conjunctions

Conjunctions are JOINERS. They connect ideas. They allow us to make longer, more complex
sentences. Remember that the word conjunction comes from the base conjoin.

Some examples of conjunctions are:

and
so
but
although
therefore
because
while
or
yet
and many, many more.

CONJUNCTION USE EXAMPLE

indicates a reason I go to school because I want to learn.
indicates contrast I go to school but I don’t like it.
indicates consequence I go to school, therefore I will learn very much.
indicates possibilities or I will go to school or I will get a job.
alternatives
indicates purpose I go to school so I can get a better job.
indicates result I am sick so I can’t go to school.
indicates contrast to the main Although I go to school, I am not getting any smarter!
statement
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 MODULE 3: ENGLISH VERBS

what the subject is doing

Verbs are words used with

a subject to tell us or what it is

or what is happening to it

watch
base
eat

watched
in one FORM simple past
ate

watched
Verbs can be past participle
eaten

transitive She likes him.

one of two
TYPES
intransitive She sneezed.
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 Modal verbs

show something is certain,

probable or possible (or not)

talk about ability

Modal verbs

ask permission

make requests and offers

MODAL VERB USE

Will/will not certainty, obligation, willingness or offers, habits
Can/can’t prohibition, permission, ability
Would/would not willingness or offers, habits
Could/could not certainty, ability
Should/should not certainty, advice or recommendation
May/may not prohibition, permission
Might/might not certainty, Advice or recommendation
Must/must not certainty, obligation, prohibition
Shall advice or recommendation, willingness or offers
Ought to advice or recommendation

Phrasal verbs

He broke up with me. (=ended the

relationship)
Phrasal verbs are
formed by a verb
followed by a
preposition, an
adverb or both.
The student came up with a very
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good idea. (=created, found)

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 Auxiliary verbs

are helping verbs

do not have a meaning by

Auxiliary verbs themselves

but add meaning to the main verb

AUXILIARY VERB FORMS EXAMPLE

Be (am, is, are, was, were) He is watching TV.
Do (does, did) Do you know my name?
Have (has, had) She has been teaching for five years.

Verb tenses in English

•are verb forms or groups that indicate the time when an

Verb tenses action took place.

TENSE AFFIRMATIVE, USE SIGNAL WORDS

NEGATIVE,
QUESTION
Simple A: He speaks.  action in the present always, every …,
Present N: He does not taking place regularly, never, normally,
speak. never or several times often, seldom,
Q: Does he speak?  facts sometimes, usually
 actions taking place one if sentences type I
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after another (If I talk, …)

action set by a
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
timetable or schedule
Present A: He is speaking.  action taking place in at the moment,
Progressive N: He is not speaking. the moment of just, just now,
Q: Is he speaking? speaking Listen!, Look!,
now, right now
  action taking place only
for a limited period of
time
 action arranged for the
future
Simple Past A: He spoke.  action in the past taking yesterday, 2
N: He did not speak. place once, never or minutes ago, in
Q: Did he speak? several times 1990, the other
 actions taking place one day, last Friday
after another if sentence type II
 action taking place in (If I talked, …)
the middle of another
action
Past A: He was speaking.  action going on at a while, as long as
Progressive N: He was not certain time in the past
speaking.  actions taking place at
Q: Was he speaking? the same time
 action in the past that is
interrupted by another
action
Present A: He has spoken.  putting emphasis on already, ever, just,
Perfect N: He has not the result never, not yet, so
Simple spoken.  action that is still going far, till now, up to
Q: Has he spoken? on now
 action that stopped
recently
 finished action that has
an influence on the
present
 action that has taken
place once, never or
several times before the
moment of speaking
Present A: He has been  putting emphasis on all day, for 4 years,
Perfect speaking. the course or since 1993, how
Progressive N: He has not been duration (not the result) long?, the whole
speaking.  action that recently week
Q: Has he been stopped or is still going
speaking? on
 finished action that
influenced the present
Past A: He had spoken.  action taking place already, just,
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Perfect N: He had not before a certain time in never, not yet,

Simple spoken. the past once, until that
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Q: Had he spoken?  sometimes day

interchangeable with if sentence type III
past perfect progressive (If I had talked, …)
  putting emphasis only on
the fact (not the
duration)
Past A: He had been  action taking place for, since, the
Perfect speaking. before a certain time in whole day, all day
Progressive N: He had not been the past
speaking.  sometimes
Q: Had he been interchangeable with
speaking? past perfect simple
 putting emphasis on
the duration or
course of an action
Future I A: He will speak.  action in the future that in a year, next …,
Simple N: He will not speak. cannot be influenced tomorrow
Q: Will he speak?  spontaneous decision If-Satz Typ I (If you
 assumption with regard ask her, she will
to the future help you.)
assumption: I
think, probably,
perhaps
Future I A: He is going to  decision made for the in one year, next
Simple speak. future week, tomorrow
(going to) N: He is not going to  conclusion with regard
speak. to the future
Q: Is he going to
speak?
Future I A: He will be  action that is going in one year, next
Progressive speaking. on at a certain time in week, tomorrow
N: He will not be the future
speaking.  action that is sure to
Q: Will he be happen in the near
speaking? future
Future II A: He will have  action that will by Monday, in a
Simple spoken. be finished at a certain week
N: He will not have time in the future
spoken.
Q: Will he have
spoken?
Future II A: He will have been  action taking place for …, the last
Progressive speaking. before a certain time in couple of hours, all
N: He will not have the future day long
been speaking.  putting emphasis on
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Q: Will he have been the course of an action

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speaking?
Conditional A: He would speak.  action that might take if sentences type II
I Simple N: He would not place (If I were you,
speak. I would go home.)
Q: Would he speak?
 Conditional A: He would be  action that might take
I speaking. place
Progressive N: He would not be  putting emphasis on
speaking. the course/duration of
Q: Would he be the action
speaking?
Conditional A: He would have  action that might have if sentences type III
II Simple spoken. taken place in the past (If I had seen that,
N: He would not have I would have
spoken. helped.)
Q: Would he have
spoken?
Conditional A: He would have  action that might have
II been speaking. taken place in the past
Progressive N: He would not have  puts emphasis on
been speaking. the course / duration of
Q: Would he have the action
been speaking?

MODULE 4: ENGLISH VERB TENSES

The simple present tense

Talk about routines or habitual actions

The simple
present tense is
used to
Talk about facts or things that are
generally true
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 The simple past tense

used to describe something that

happened in the past and, usually,
finished in the past
The simple past
tense is used to

i.e. that generally there is no, or little,

relation to the present time

The simple future tense

WILL to describe making a
• Spur-of-the-moment decision
• Promise
• Prediction
The simple future
tense is formed
by using GOING TO when
• Stating a plan or intention for the
future (something you know will
happen)

The present continuous tense

Something that is happening right now

Something that is more or less temporary

The present
continuous tense
is used to express
Change or progress

A plan or intention
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 The past continuous tense

Something in progress in the past

Something happening over a longer

The past period of time in the past
continuous tense
is used to express
Something that was interrupted

Something that was happening at the

time of another event

The future continuous tense

Talk about continuous situations in the

future or something that will be in
progress in the future
The future
continuous tense
is used to
State that something is expected or
scheduled to happen

The present perfect tense

Something that started in the past and

continues into the present
The present
perfect tense is
used to talk
about
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Accomplishments and experiences

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 The past perfect tense

The past perfect

tense is used to
talk about
Something that happened in the past
before another past event

The future perfect tense

The future
perfect tense is
used to talk
about
Something expected to happen or to be
true at some point in the future

The present perfect continuous tense

Something started in the past and still

continues now or has just stopped, i.e. it
covers the situation up to now or so far
The present
perfect
Recent activities, where the result is in
continuous tense the present
is used to talk
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about
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Temporary situations
 The past perfect continuous tense

Something that started in the past and

has just stopped in the recent past

The past perfect

continuous tense Recent activities, where the result is in
is used to talk the recent past
about

Temporary situations in the past

The future perfect continuous tense

The future
perfect
continuous tense
is used to talk
about Something expected to happen or to be
true at some point in the future
temporarily

Tips for teaching verb tenses

Students need to know affirmative statements as much as negative statements

and questions, how to use the other persons (first, second, third—singular and
plural), and how to use short answers.
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Most tenses perform more than one function, so teach them gradually, and
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allow for lots of practice.

Teach contractions when teaching a verb tense to help students sound much
more natural when speaking.
 English verb tense forms

Affirmative Negative Question

Present Simple
I am I am not Am I ?
You are You are not Are you ?
He/She/It is He/She/It is not Is he/she/it ?
We are We are not Are we ?
You are You are not Are you ?
They are They are not Are they ?
Past Simple
I was I was not Was I ?
You were You were not Were you ?
He/She/It was He/She/It was not Was he/she/it ?
We were We were not Were we ?
You were You were not Were you ?
They were They were not Were they ?
Future Simple
I will be I will not be Will I be?
You will be You will not be Will you be?
He/She/It will be He/She/It will not be Will he/she/it be?
We will be We will not be Will we be?
You will be You will not be Will you be?
They will be They will not be Will they be?
Present Perfect Simple
I have been I have not been Have I been?
You have been You have not been Have you been?
He/She/It has been He/She/It has not been Has he/she/it been?
We have been We have not been Have we been?
You have been You have not been Have you been?
They have been They have not been Have they been?
Past Perfect Simple
I had been I had not been Had I been?
You had been You had not been Had you been?
He/She/It had been He/She/It had not been Had he/she/it been?
We had been We had not been Had we been?
You had been You had not been Had you been?
They had been They had not been Had they been?
Future Perfect
I will have been I will not have been Will I have been?
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You will have been You will not have been Will you have been?
He/She/It will have been He/She/It will not have been Will he/she/it have been?
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We will have been We will not have been
You will have been You will not have been
They will have been They will not have been
Conditional
I would be I would not be
Will we have been?
Will you have been?
Will they have been?
Would I be?
 You would be You would not be Would you be?
He/She/It would be He/She/It would not be Would he/she/it be?
We would be We would not be Would we be?
You would be You would not be Would you be?
They would be They would not be Would they be?
Conditional Perfect
I would have been I would not have been Would I have been?
You would have been You would not have been Would you have been?
He/She/It would have been He/She/It would not have Would he/she/it have been?
been
We would have been We would not have been Would we have been?
You would have been You would not have been Would you have been?
They would have been They would not have been Would they have been?
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 MODULE 5: OTHER IMPORTANT FORMS
The imperative

is used to give orders or instructions

The imperative

is the base form of the verb, without

"to", and usually, with no subject needed

FUNCTION FORM EXAMPLE

used to give base form Listen to me.
instructions/ Please be quiet.
commands Don’t walk on the grass.
used to beg/plead please + base Please, forgive me!
form
to make a suggestion base form Call him. I’m sure he wants to hear
from you.
to encourage base form Come on, fight for her!
someone
to offer something base form Have some biscuits.
to offer good wishes base form Have a great time!
to express comments base form Get lost!
or requests of a rude
nature

Conditionals

Zero conditional: a general truth

First conditional: a realistic possible condition

+ result
Conditionals can be
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a
Second conditional: a hypothetical condition +
result
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Third conditional: an unreal past condition +

result
 TYPE “IF” CLAUSE
Zero If I comb my hair…
‘If’ + present form of verb
First If I comb my hair…
‘If’ + present form of verb
Second If I combed my hair…
‘If’ + past form of verb
Third If I had combed my hair…
‘If’ + past perfect form of verb
MAIN CLAUSE
… I look pretty.
present form of verb
… I will look pretty.
future simple form of verb (will + verb)
… I would look pretty.
would + verb (can also use ‘should’, ‘could’,
‘might’)
…I would have looked pretty.
would + present perfect form of verb

Used to - Be used to/Able to

• expresses habit in the past, i.e. habits that are no longer

Used to held

• expresses that someone has grown accustomed to

Be used to something, and it can refer to the present, past or future

Active voice - passive voice

• The boy kicked the ball. = The subject (boy) performs the
Active voice action.

• The ball was kicked by the boy. = The subject (ball)

receives the action.
Passive voice
• Formed in any tense by adding the verb "be" in the
appropriate tense and using the past participle of the verb

The performer of the action is not as

important as the receiver
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The passive voice is

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used when

The performer of the action is unknown or not

indicated
 Direct speech versus indirect (reported) speech

Direct speech
provides •information as stated originally by a speaker

•to a tense that is further back on the timeline, depending

on the context (for example, the simple present tense
Indirect (reported) changes to the simple past tense if the speech is reported
speech restates much later on)
something said by •from "will" to "would"
another and so •from "can" to "could"
switches •from "may" to "might"
•from "today" to "that day"
•from "tomorrow" to "the next day"

MODULE 6: LEXIS
Root, affix, prefix, suffix

Root •the base form of a word

Affix • a part added to the root to convey a certain meaning

Prefix • an affix before the root

Suffix •an affix after the root

COMMON PREFIXES
Prefix Definition Examples
anti- against anticlimax
de- opposite devalue
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dis- not; opposite of discover

en-, em- cause to enact, empower
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fore- before; front of foreshadow, forearm

in-, im- in income, impulse
in-, im-, il-, ir- not indirect, immoral, illiterate, irreverent
inter- between; among interrupt
mid- middle midfield
mis- wrongly misspell
 non- not nonviolent
over- over; too much overeat
pre- before preview
re- again rewrite

COMMON SUFFIXES
Suffix Definition Examples
-able, -ible is; can be affordable, sensible
-al, -ial having characteristics of universal, facial
-ed past tense verbs; adjectives the dog walked, the walked dog
-en made of golden
-er, -or one who; person connected teacher, professor
with
-er more taller
-est the most tallest
-ful full of helpful
-ic having characteristics of poetic
-ing verb forms; present sleeping
participles
-ion, -tion, - act; process submission, motion, relation,
ation, edition
-tion
-ity, -ty state of activity, society

Compound words

Compound nouns • two words come together to form a noun

Compound verbs • two words come together to form a verb

Compound
adjectives • two words come together to make an adjective

To hyphenate or not to hyphenate compound words?

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British
Prevailing English or Follow
usage at the dictionary
American
time? English? spelling!
 MODULE 7: LEXIS - LANGUAGE APPROPRIACY AND FREQUENCY, IDIOMS, AND
SLANG
Which English? What about teaching expressions and colloquial language?

What kind of English is being taught by your

school, British English or American English?
What kind of English is used in the materials
in your school?
Slow down your normal speech rate by
What kind of about five (5) percent.
vocabulary to teach
Monitor your vocabulary level.
Aim to model colloquial English (common,
everyday informal speech) which is more
natural and less formal.
Minimise slang (considered poor English).

What about idioms?

groups of words which, when used together,

have a different meaning from the one which
the individual words have
Idioms are
Not appropriate in general below the upper
intermediate or B2 level but common ones can
be introduced at the intermediate or B1 level

What about slang?

Don’t use slang indiscriminately or to address

your class!
Don’t teach slang to beginner students who
need to have a good, correct base first!
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No to slang
Don’t teach slang out of context!
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Don’t teach slang for the sake of it!