MEHRAN UNIVERSITY

OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY, JAMSHORO

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING, DEPARTMENT
B.E MECHATRONIC ENGINEERING PROGRAM

CONTROL SYSTEMS

INTRODUCTION

1
 INTRODUCTION

PROGRAM LEARNING OUTCOMES(PLOS)

Program Learning outcomes are narrow statements describing what students are
expected to know and able to do by the time of graduation. These are related to
knowledge, skills and attitude that the students acquire while progressing through the
Program.
There are 12 PLOs for BE Program as specified below:
1. Engineering Knowledge: An ability to gain and apply knowledge of mathematics,
science, engineering fundamentals and engineering specialization to solve complex
engineering problems.
2. Problem Analysis: An ability to identify, formulate, research literature and analyse
complex engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first
principles of mathematics, natural sciences and engineering sciences.
3. Design / Development of Solutions: An ability to design solutions for complex
engineering problems and design systems, components or processes that meet
specified needs with appropriate consideration for public health and safety, cultural,
societal, and environmental considerations.
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 INTRODUCTION

PROGRAM LEARNING OUTCOMES(PLOS)

4. Investigation: An ability to investigate complex engineering problems in a
methodical way including literature survey, design and conduct of experiments,
analysis and interpretation of experimental data, and synthesis of information to derive
valid conclusions.
5. Modern Tool Usage: An ability to create, select and apply appropriate techniques,
resources, and modern engineering and IT tools, including prediction and modelling in
complex engineering activities, with an understanding of the limitations.
6. The Engineer and Society: An ability to apply reasoning informed by contextual
knowledge to assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the
consequent responsibilities relevant to professional engineering practice and solution
to complex engineering problems.
7. Environment and Sustainability: An ability to understand the impact of
professional engineering solutions in societal and environmental contexts and
demonstrate knowledge of and need for sustainable development.
8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and
responsibilities and norms of engineering practice. 3
 INTRODUCTION

PROGRAM LEARNING OUTCOMES(PLOS)

9. Individual and Teamwork:
An ability to work effectively, as an individual or in a team, on multifaceted and /or
multidisciplinary settings.
10. Communication:
An ability to communicate effectively, orally as well as in writing, on complex
engineering activities with the engineering community and with society at large, such
as being able to comprehend and write effective reports and design documentation,
make effective presentations, and give and receive clear instructions.
11. Project Management
An ability to demonstrate management skills and apply engineering principles to one’s
own work, as a member and/or leader in a team, to manage projects in a
multidisciplinary environment.
12. Lifelong Learning:
An ability to recognize importance of, and pursue lifelong learning in the broader
context of innovation and technological developments.
4
 SUBJECT INTRODUCTION

After Completing the “Mechanics Of Machines” Course, each student will be able to:
Texano
Sr.
CLO Domain my PLO
No.
Level
To explain fundamental concepts of a control
1. Cognitive 2 1
system.
To develop mathematical models of
2. mechanical, electrical and electromechanical Cognitive 5 2
systems.
To design control systems for mechanical, 3&
3. Cognitive 5
electrical and electromechanical systems 5

PLO-1: Engineering Knowledge: C2: Understanding / Comprehension:

PLO-2:. Problem Analysis: C5: Evaluating / Evaluation:
PLO-3:. Design / Development of Solutions:
PLO-5:. Modern Tool Usage: 5
BASIC CONCEPTS

&

TERMINOLOGY

6
 INTRODUCTION

CONTROL SYSTEMS:
= SYSTEMS + CONTROL
SYSTEMS: The word system has many meanings and for this subject system
can be define as:
Definition 1: A system is an arrangement, set, or collection of things connected
or related in such a manner as to form an entirety or whole.
Definition 2: A system is an arrangement of physical components connected or
related in such a manner as to form and/or act as an entire unit.

CONTROL: The word control is usually taken to mean regulate, direct, or

command. Combining the above definitions, we have

Definition: A control system is an arrangement of physical components

connected or related in such a manner as to command, direct, or regulate itself
or another system.

7
 INTRODUCTION

CONTROL SYSTEMS:
As Everything alters its environment in some
manner, if not actively then passively, therefore
it is possible to consider every physical object
as a control system.
Example: A mirror directing a beam of light
shining on it at some acute angle. The mirror
(showing in figure) may be considered an
elementary control system, controlling the
beam of light according to the simple equation
"the angle of reflection a equals the angle of
incidence .
In engineering and science, the meaning of
control systems is usually restricted and apply
to those systems whose major function is to
dynamically or actively command, direct, or
regulate. 8
 INTRODUCTION

CONTROL SYSTEMS:
The system shown in figure, consisting of a mirror pivoted at one end and
adjusted up and down with a screw at the other end, is properly termed a control
system.
The angle of reflected light is regulated by means of the screw.

However, control systems of

interest for analysis or design
purposes include not only
those manufactured by
humans, but those that
normally exist in nature, and
control systems with both
manufactured and natural
components.

9
 INTRODUCTION
CONTROL SYSTEMS:
The portion of a system that is to be controlled is called the plant or process or
model.
Understanding of input and output terms, helps to identify, or define a control
system.

Definition: The input is the stimulus/motivation, excitation/force or command/order

applied to a control system, typically from an external energy source, usually in
order to produce a specified response from the control system.

Definition: The output is the actual response/results obtained from a control system.
It may or may not be equal to the specified response implied by the input.

Definition: The inaccessible/unapproachable input signals are often disturbances

to the plant.

10
 INTRODUCTION
CONTROL SYSTEMS:
The purpose of the control system usually identifies or defines the output and
input. If the output and input are given, it is possible to identify, or define the
nature of the system components.

Control systems may have more than one input or output. Often all inputs and
outputs are well defined by the system description. But sometimes they are not.

11
 INTRODUCTION
CONTROL SYSTEMS:
A control system may be part of a larger system, where, it is called a subsystem
or control subsystem, and its inputs and outputs may then be internal variables of
the larger system.

Example-1: An electric switch is a manufactured control system, controlling the

flow of electricity. By definition, the apparatus or person nipping the switch is
not a part of this control system.
Flipping the switch on or off may be considered as the input. That is, the input
can be in one of two states, on or off. The output is the flow or nonflow (two
states) of electricity. The electric switch is one of the most elementary control
systems.

12
 INTRODUCTION
CONTROL SYSTEMS:
Example-2. A thermostatically controlled heater or
furnace automatically regulating the temperature of
a room or enclosure is a control system.
The input to this system is a reference temperature,
usually specified by appropriately setting a
thermostat.
The output is the actual temperature of the room or
enclosure.
When the thermostat detects that the output is less
than the input, the furnace provides heat until the
temperature of the enclosure becomes equal to the
reference input, then the furnace is automatically
turned off.
When the temperature falls somewhat below the
reference temperature, the furnace is turned on
again.
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 INTRODUCTION
CONTROL SYSTEMS:
Example-3. The seemingly simple act of pointing at an object with a finger
requires a biological control system consisting chiefly of the eyes, the arm,
hand and finger, and the brain.
The input is the precise direction of the object (moving or not) with respect to
some reference, and the output is the actual pointed direction with respect to
the same reference.

14
 INTRODUCTION
CONTROL SYSTEMS:
Example-4. A part of the human temperature control system is the
perspiration/sweat system.
When the temperature of the air exterior to the skin becomes too high the
sweat glands secrete heavily, inducing cooling of the skin by evaporation.
Secretions are reduced when the desired cooling effect is achieved, or when
the air temperature falls sufficiently.
The input to this system may be "normal" or comfortable skin temperature, a
"setpoint," or the air temperature, a physical variable.
The output is the actual skin temperature.

15
 INTRODUCTION
CONTROL SYSTEMS:
Example-5. The control system consisting of a person driving an automobile has
components which are clearly both manufactured and biological.
The driver wants to keep the automobile in the appropriate lane of the roadway.
He or she accomplishes this by constantly watching the direction of the automobile
with respect to the direction of the road.
In this case, the direction or heading of the road, represented by the painted guide
line or lines on either side of the lane may be considered as the input.
The heading of the automobile is the output
of the system.
The driver controls this output by constantly
measuring it with his or her eyes and brain,
and correcting it with his or her hands on the
steering wheel.
The major components of this control
system are the driver's hands, eyes and
brain, and the vehicle.
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 INTRODUCTION
OPEN-LOOP, AND CLOSED-LOOP CONTROL SYSTEMS:

The portion of a system that is to be controlled is called the plant or process or model.
Control systems are classified into two general categories: open-loop and closed-loop
systems.
Definition: An open-loop control system is one in which the control action is
independent of the output.
Two outstanding features of open-loop control systems are:
1. Their ability to perform accurately is determined by their calibration. To
calibrate means to establish or re-establish the input-output relation to obtain a
desired system accuracy.
2. They are not usually troubled with problems of instability, a concept to be
subsequently discussed in detail.

17
 INTRODUCTION
OPEN-LOOP AND CLOSED-LOOP CONTROL SYSTEMS:

Definition: A closed-loop control system is one in which the control action is

somehow dependent on the output. Closed-loop control systems are more commonly
called feedback control systems.

Definition: Feedback is that property of a closed-loop system which permits the

output to be compared with the input to the system so that the appropriate control
action may be formed as some function of the output and input..

If the requirements of the system

cannot be satisfied with an open-
loop control system. Closed-loop
or feedback system is desirable.

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 INTRODUCTION
FEEDBACK SYSTEMS:
A path (or loop) is provided from the output back to the controller. Some or all of
the system outputs are measured and used by the controller, as indicated in Figure.

The controller may then compare a desired plant output with the actual output and
act to reduce the difference between the two.

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 INTRODUCTION
OPEN-LOOP AND CLOSED-LOOP CONTROL SYSTEMS:

Example(Open Loop). Most automatic toasters are open-loop systems because

they are controlled by a timer. The time required to make "good toast" must be
estimated by the user, who is not part of the system. Control over the quality of toast
(the output) is removed once the time, which is both the input and the control
action, has been set. The time is typically set by means of a calibrated dial or
switch.

Example(Close Loop). An autopilot mechanism and the airplane it controls is a

closed-loop (feedback) control system. Its purpose is to maintain a specified
airplane heading, despite atmospheric changes. It performs this task by continuously
measuring the actual airplane heading, and automatically adjusting the airplane
control surfaces (rudder, ailerons, etc.) so as to bring the actual airplane heading
into correspondence with the specified heading. The human pilot or operator who
pre-sets the autopilot is not part of the control system.
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 CLASS RULES
1. Mobile phones should be switched off or on silent mode.
2. Every student should has its own writing book and pen.
3. Every student will write/note the slide’s titles/heading/topics in writing
book.
4. Every student can write/note any points for his own understanding.
5. If teacher is writing on white board, you should concentrate on white
board and don’t whispers (soft voice) or talk in class.
6. During class lecture, you have permission to discuss with teacher but on
completion of slide or teacher wants.
7. Without permission of teacher, discussion with friends during class is
not allowed.
8. If student want to borrow anything from friend, come in class, leave
class, first take permission from teacher.
9. Should be punctual in class, after 10 minutes of starting of class,
nobody will be allowed in class.
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 INTRODUCTION
FEEDBACK SYSTEMS:
Advantages:
1. Increased accuracy: The closed-loop system may be designed to drive the error
(difference between desired and measured response) to zero.
2. Reduced sensitivity to changes in components. As in the preceding examples,
the system may be designed to seek zero error despite changes in the plant.
3. Reduced effects of disturbances. The effects of disturbances to the system may
be greatly attenuated.
4. Increased speed of response and bandwidth. Feedback may be used to increase
the range of frequencies over which a system will respond and to make it respond
more desirably. A satellite booster rocket, for example, has aerodynamics
resembling those of a giant broomstick. It may. with feedback, behave with beauty
and grace.

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 INTRODUCTION
EXERCISE:
IDENTIFY OPEN AND CLOSE LOOP SYSTEMS
Input Controller Plant Disturbance Output Measurement
Hair Hot air
Heat setting Dial Hair dryer None
dampness temperature
Type of Rotating drill
Speed setting Dial Drill None
material bit speed
Desired Outside Hot air Room
Thermostat Furnace
temperature temperature temperature temperature
Desired Cruise Driving
Auto engine Car speed Engine rpm
speed control conditions
Desired Electorate/
President Economy Decisions Evaluation
performance People
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 INTRODUCTION
EXERCISE:
Identify the input, controller, and output for each of the following control systems.
Which are open loop and which are closed loop?
(a) A heater with thermostat
(b) A toaster
(c) A human being reaching to touch an object
(d) A human being piloting an aircraft
(e) A hydroelectric generator
Open/Close
Plant Input Controller Output
loop
Hot air
a. Temperature Thermostat Closed
temperature
b. Darkness Dial Heat Open
c. Position Brain Position Closed
d. Destination Human Speed, heading Closed
Desired flow Pipes/
e. Power open 24
rate nozzles
 INTRODUCTION
MODELLING:
A mathematical model of a system that behaves similarly to the actual system
within some operating range.
Engineers must be able to analyse and design systems of many kinds.
For example:, to design a speed control system for an automobile, it is necessary to
understand:
1- how the vacuum pressure of an engine affects throttle setting (pneumatics),
2- how temperature and pressure within a cylinder affect the power out as the
gas-air mixture from the carburettor explodes (thermodynamics),
3- how the car will respond to the power applied by the pistons in the cylinders
(mechanics), and
4- how electrical devices may be created to measure and store important
variables like temperature and vacuum pressure (electrical circuits).
In each case it is necessary to create a mathematical model that behaves similarly to
the actual system within some operating range. A mathematical model is also known
as Plant/Process/Model.
The result is the description of a plant for which a controller and measurement
device may then be designed. 25
 INTRODUCTION

MODELLING:
Linearization is a linear approximation
of a nonlinear system that is valid in a
small region around an operating
point.

The process of linearization may be

used to construct a model that is valid
for some range of operating
conditions.

26
 INTRODUCTION
MODELLING:
For example, certain values of a spring-
mass-damper may be able to simulate the
motion of a car within some range of
power applied while other values are
needed for different powers applied.

Hooke's law states that the strain in a

solid is proportional to the applied
stress within the elastic limit of that
solid.

It means linear within elastic limit.

Even Ohm’s famous law that V = IR is

good only for some range of voltage
versus current.
27
 INTRODUCTION
MODELLING:

Find the linearization of (y=x2 ) at

xo=2 and 4.1

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 INTRODUCTION
MODELLING:
Find the linearization of followings:

1- y=x2 at xo=1, 2, and 4.1

2- y=x3 at xo=1

3- y=2x1/3 at xo=1

4- y=2 Cos(2x) at xo=/4

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 SYSTEM DYNAMICS

System Dynamics: where mathematical models of

dynamic mechanical, electrical/electromagnetic,
thermal and fluid/pneumatic systems are created
and analysed.

30
 SYSTEM DYNAMICS
A controls engineer usually works from the Laplace-transformed description of a
system.
Each application has its own unique properties.
Some systems are purely electrical while others may employ electrical, hydraulic,
and mechanical subsystems, all tied together in a coordinated effort to maintain
some desired performance.

In this syllabus, examination methods for analysing components of the

following types:

• Electrical (mesh analysis, node analysis, state variables,)

• Mechanical translational (free-body diagrams and state variables)
• Mechanical rotational (free-body diagrams)
• Electromechanical
• Hydraulic
• Thermodynamic

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ELECTRICAL SYSTEM DYNAMICS

32
 ELECTRICAL SYSTEM DYNAMICS
Electrical systems, also named circuits or networks, are designed as combinations
of mainly three fundamental components with a voltage source:
1-resistor (resistance), 2-capacitor(capacitance), and 3-inductor (inductance).
These Resistor, Capacitor and Inductors are put together in a circuit like RC, RL
and RLC circuit configuration.
Circuit exhibits time and frequency dependent responses that will e useful in many
applications. A RC / RL / RLC circuit can be used as a filter or oscillator and used
to change the frequencies.

Resistor is a passive element that resists the flow of electrons.

It allows only certain amount of current to pass through it,
remaining current is converted into heat.
Resistance is the property of the resistor to oppose the
current. 33
 ELECTRICAL SYSTEM DYNAMICS
Electrical systems, also named circuits or networks, are designed as combinations
of mainly three fundamental components with a voltage source:
1-resistor (resistance), 2-capacitor(capacitance), and 3-inductor (inductance).
An inductor(L) is a passive electronic component that stores energy in
the form of a magnetic field. The inductance is directly proportional to
the number of turns in the coil.
Inductors are used in tuning circuits which are used to select the
desired frequency.
The well known and wide range application of inductors is Induction
motors. A relay is like an electrical switch. It uses inductor coil to
control the current flow in it.
Capacitor is generally used to store the charge. In capacitor the charge
is stored in the form of “electrical field”.
Capacitor can store the energy and it can dissipate this energy to the
circuit when ever required.
Circuits with capacitors depend on the frequency, so can be used to
amplify certain frequencies.
It allows high frequencies and so it can be used as a filters either to
34
filter low frequencies or to collect high frequencies.
 ELECTRICAL SYSTEM DYNAMICS
EQUATIONS AND FORMULAS:
v= Voltage, i = Current, R= Resistance, =density, l=length, A=Area
P= Power, E=Energy, C=capacitance, q = charge,
RESISTANCE ( R ) CAPACITANCE ( C )

35
 ELECTRICAL SYSTEM DYNAMICS
EQUATIONS AND FORMULAS: inductance unit is the henry (H).
L= inductance, N=turns, D=coil diameter, l=total wire length,
=magnetic permeability,
INDUCTOR ( L )

36
 ELECTRICAL SYSTEM DYNAMICS
OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS
Operational amplifiers (or simply op amps) are
components that can be connected with other
electrical components in circuits to:
1- Amplify voltage,
2- Isolate circuits,
3- Count signals, or
4- Perform arithmetical and mathematical
operations (addition, integration, differentiation,
etc.).

The symbol of an op amp, indicates its main feature of having two input ports (a
negative one and a positive one) and therefore differential input voltages.
Voltages are usually measured with respect to the ground (which has zero voltage).
The op amps amplifies the differential input voltage (v2 - v1) to an output voltage
by means of a factor K, known as gain or amplification:

37
 ELECTRICAL SYSTEM DYNAMICS
OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS
The operational amplifier has some basic properties:
• High input impedance (the impedance is refers to the electrical resistance posed to
the passing of current), which is ideally equal to infinity.
• Low output impedance (which is ideally zero).
• High gain of 105−106 (infinity ideally; actually the gain depends on frequency,
when harmonic or sinusoidal signals are involved, and it can decrease significantly
with the frequency increase).

38
ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS AND NETWORKS

39
 ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS AND NETWORKS
Electrical elements are connected in electrical systems, known as circuits or
networks, whose dynamic behaviour is described by mathematical models expressed
as differential equations.
Electrical networks are governed by two Kirchhoff laws:
1. The algebraic sum of voltages around a closed loop equals zero.
2. The algebraic sum of currents flowing into a circuit node equals zero.

Kirchhoff ’s laws will be used with procedures derived, such as:

1- Mesh analysis method and
2- Node analysis method.
40
 ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS AND NETWORKS
Example: Using KCL, determine the relationship between the input current ii and the
output current io of the electrical network of Figure.
Solution: Based on KCL, the following current balance equations can be written at
nodes a, b, c, d, e, and f of Figure.

io=ii shows that, as expected, the current entering

the electrical network, ii, is equal to the current
that exits the network, io, because the current
(and the charge) is ideally a conservative
(resistant to change) amount. 41
 ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS AND NETWORKS
Example: Use KVL to derive the mathematical model of the single-mesh electrical
circuit of Figure-2, which is formed of two voltage sources, a resistor, an inductor,
and a capacitor.
Solution: The source v1 produces a positive voltage in the direction of the arbitrarily
chosen direction of the current i. The other source, v2, opposes the current direction;
it therefore has a minus sign in the corresponding KVL equation:

Figure-1.

This Equation is the mathematical model for the

electrical system of Figure-2.
A model that is expressed in terms of
charge instead of current is obtained
using the charge-current relationship, as: Figure-2

42
 ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS AND NETWORKS

IMPORTANT:

Conventional current flows around a circuit from the positive (+) side of the cell to
the negative (-). However the electrons are flowing around the circuit in the opposite
direction from the negative (-) side of the cell to the positive (+).

The most significant difference between the charge and the current is that the charge
is the physical property of matter, whereas the current is the rate of flow of charges.
Charge (Q) is measured in coulombs (C). A single electron carries a charge of
1.6 x 10-19 C. (I=Q/t or 1A=1 C/s)

It should be noted that Kirchhoff’s voltage law is the electrical domain counterpart of
Newton’s second law of motion for mechanical systems.

Forcing and voltage are similar,

Voltage across Inductors and Inertia are similar,
Voltage across Resistors and Damping are similar, and
Voltage across Capacitors and Spring Force are similar.
43
REFER FOLLOWING BOOKS AND CLASS WORK FOR
OBJECTIVE TEST AND PRACTICE PROBLEMS
Books:

1- Design of Feedback Control Systems,

By R. T. Stefani, C. J. Savant, B. Shahian, G. H. Hostetter,
Latest Edition

2- Feedback control systems,

By Phillips, Harbor,
Latest Edition

3- Modern Control Engineering,

By K. Ogata, Pearson Education,
Latest Edition
44