Professional Documents
Culture Documents
CHY1702
Module 1
Module-1 Environment and Ecosystem
Key environmental problems and their basic causes and
sustainable solutions. IPAT equation. Ecosystem, earth – life
support system and ecosystem components; Food chain, food
web, Energy flow in ecosystem; Ecological succession- stages
involved, Primary and secondary succession, Hydrarch,
mesarch, xerarch; Nutrient, water, carbon, nitrogen, cycles;
Effect of human activities on these cycles.
Key environmental problems and their basic causes
• 1) High quantity of Exhaust gases: The biggest reason by far for
all kinds of environmental degradation is the exorbitant amount of
gases, harmful to the environment, which is released by the various
industries. Prime amongst these gases are C0 2, S02 and NH3. Of
course there are many more, and these are the main culprits for
ozone holes and global warming.
• 2) Deforestation: Close second comes the deforestation all over the
world, to harness forest resources, to clear land, for wood and for
various other reasons. Deforestation causes major problems for one
simple reason; it decreases the number of trees, which clean the
environment, provide oxygen and also affect rain patterns. This is the
major reason why there are calls for tree plantation; it is to make up
for this loss.
• 3) High number of industries such as mining: Mining
creates a lot of pollution, mainly because it releases particulate
matter, which qualifies as Respirable Particulate Matter (RPM);
the particulate matter which can enter our lungs and can harm
the entire respiratory system. This form causes the most direct
harm to humans, also particulate matter can come from indoor
pollution, as can be seen in cooking on traditional ‘choolahs’
and cottage industries like ‘bangle-making’.
• 4) Chemical effluents: Effluents are another by-product of
industries which poses threat to the environment, leather and
tanning industries, petroleum industries and chemical
manufacturing industries create major waste products which
are released directly into nearby streams without treatment,
creating river pollution and causing harm to aquatic life.
• 5) Transport: As the spending power of the population increases and
as cars become available more, the number of vehicles on the road
increases. The amount has grown exponentially in countries like India,
Brazil and China and this is a point form of pollution which directly
affects humans. Smog is a nuisance that is created because of
vehicular pollution, and Hydro-Carbons released from engines are the
cause of creation of lower level ozone that is harmful to humans.
• 6) Unprecedented Construction: Urban Heat Island is a direct
cause of the unprecedented construction activities that are being
carried out right now, and urban heat island causes trapping of
pollutants. Urban Heat island is an effect caused due to trapping of
solar radiation by concrete and cement which are materials which trap
heat extremely well. Construction causes removal of vegetative cover
which usually allows for better exchange of heat. This heat island effect
causes constricted circulation of air, which traps pollutants released in
urban areas and does not allow for mixing of the air, thus decreasing
the air quality.
• 7) Secondary Pollutants: Secondary pollutants are ones that
are not directly emitted; however they get created when primary
pollutants react amongst themselves. Major amongst them is the
creation of ozone from reaction between non-burnt Hydrocarbons
and Nitrous Oxides. There are various other secondary pollutants
and the reaction between these pollutants cause reactions that
lead to formation of ozone holes. Stratospheric clouds are the
main reaction sites for such pollutants.
• 8 ) Ruinous agricultural policies: Overloading the land with
fertilizers, overgrazing and shifting agriculture are ruinous
agricultural policies that degrade land, creating soil erosion that
leads to silting in major rivers and reservoirs. Soil degradation is
a continuous cycle and it ultimately leads to desertification and
degradation of land quality by allowing the direct action of
eroding agents on cultivable land.
• 9) The Population Explosion: The increasing population creates
a load that the entire environment has to support, not only in terms
of food and lodging, but also in terms of the amount of waste that it
generates and the ability of the environment to sustain this growth.
All major activities are carried out to support this growing
population, and whilst this is unavoidable, what is required is the
proper planning that should come with this explosion.
• 10) Unplanned Land-use policies: Land models are available
these days which help in proper planning and use of land
resources. However, failure to use these models and land
management policies can lead to land pollution and degradation.
Extraction from mines renders them unusable for habitation and if
rehabilitation work is not carried out, the piece of land is sure to lose
all its value and become unusable. Land classification is one of the
major activities that help in proper land use, and it should be
followed with utmost care.
• 11) Poverty Has Harmful Environmental and Health
Effects: Poverty occurs when people are unable to fulfill their
basic needs for adequate food, water, shelter, health, and
education. According to a 2008 study by the World Bank, 1.4
billion people—one of every five people on the planet and almost
five times the number of people in the United States—live in
extreme poverty. Poverty causes a number of harmful
environmental and health effects. The daily lives of the world’s
poorest people are focused on getting enough food, water, and
fuel for cooking and heating to survive. Desperate for short-term
survival, some of these individuals degrade potentially renewable
forests, soils, grasslands, fisheries, and wildlife at an ever-
increasing rate. They do not have the luxury of worrying about
long-term environmental quality or sustainability.
• Even though the poor in less-developed countries have no choice but to
use very few resources per person, their large population size leads to
a high overall environmental impact. While poverty can increase some
types of environmental degradation, the converse is also true. Pollution
and environmental degradation have a severe impact on the poor and
can increase their poverty. Consequently, many of the world’s poor
people die prematurely from several preventable health problems. One
such problem is malnutrition caused by a lack of protein and other
nutrients needed for good health. A second health problem is limited
access to adequate sanitation facilities and clean drinking water. More
than 2.6 billion people—more than 8 times the population of the United
States—have no decent bathroom facilities.
How do humans effect the planet?
P. Erhlich, J. Holdren (1971) “Impact of population growth,’’ Science, 171, 1212-1217
Eagle Fish
Snake Crab
Rabbit Algae
Flowing Energy
Stored Energy
Stored Energy
Flowing Energy
Pyramid of energy
Pyramid of biomass
Pyramid of energy
•A pyramid of energy depicts the energy flow, or
productivity, of each trophic level
Energy
decrease
Pyramid of numbers
•A pyramid of numbers indicates the number of
individuals in each trophic level
•Since the size of individuals may vary widely
pyramids of numbers say little or nothing about
the amount of energy moving through the ecosystem
Top Hawks
Carnivore
Frogs
Carnivore
Insects
Herbivore
Grasses
Producers
Snakes
Carnivore
Herbivires Rabbit
Producers Grass
Inverted Pyramids
• A pyramid of numbers and pyramid of bio-mass may
be inverted, i.e., a higher trophic level may have a
larger number or bio-mass than a lower trophic level
Pyramid of numbers
Microbes
Top Hawks
Carnivore Hyper parasites
Carnivore Frogs
Parasites Bugs
Herbivore Insects
Herbivore Birds
Producers
Producers Grass Phytoplankton
Ecological Succession
Communities and Ecosystems change
with changing environmental
conditions.
Ecological Succession
• The ecosystem is dynamic – changes with
respect to external factors
• Some times replacement of one community by
other over a period of time
• The progressive replacement of one community
by another till the development of stable
community over a time in a particular area is
called ecological succession.
• It ultimately a process to get a stable
ecosystem
Types of ecological succession
Ecologists recognize two types of ecological
succession, based on the conditions present at the
beginning of the process.
1. Primary succession: It involves the gradual establishment
of biotic communities on a lifeless ground.
• Different types of starting areas
i. Hydrarch or Hydrosere – watery area
like swamp-involves the ecosystem in the newly
formed pond
ii. Mesarch – area with adequate moisture
iii. Xerach or Xerosere – succession involved dry area
with little moisture
Lithosere – bare rock
Psammosere – sand
Halosere – saline soil
1 4 Hydrosere
or hydrarch
2 5
3 6
7
Xerosere (lithosere)
bare rock→lichens→mosses→grasses→shrubs→trees
2. Secondary succession: It involves the establishment
of biotic communities in an area, where some type of
biotic community is already present.
• After a volcanic eruption a glacial retreat, a
landslide or flood – bare land