SOUNDING

REDUCTION OF SOUNDINGS
 REDUCTION OF SOUNDINGS
• Convert the observed depths to the values
they would have been if measured from a
water surface of unvarying and known
elevation forming the datum of reduction.
• The reduced soundings are the reduced levels
of the submarine surface in terms of the
adopted datum.
• Reduction is performed by computing and
applying corrections to the measured depths.
• In tide less water’s a constant correction equal
to the difference between the actual water
surface and the datum is applied to all the
soundings.
• In tidal water’s the amount of correction
changes with the varying water level as read
on the tide gauge.
• Having interpolated the appropriate gauge
readings the corrections are deduced as the
differences between the gauge readings and
the value of the datum as it would be
indicated on the tide gauge.
• These are entered as positive or negative quantities
according as the latter is greater or smaller than the
former.
• The following soundings were taken when the gauge
reading was 4.65 m;
1.5m, 3.6m, 5.7m,8.5m,10.3m. If the gauge reading at
the chart datum is 3.10 m reduce the sounding to the
chart datum (LWOST).
Correction to the soundings is given as:
Cs= G – h = 3.10 m – 4.65 = -1.55 m (tidal height)
The reduced sounding is given by, S – Cs; where S is the
sounding at any point.
S1 = 1.5 m-1.55m=-0.05 m
S2 = 3.6 m-1.55m =2.05 m
• 5.7m – 1.55m = 4.15 m
8.5 m – 1.55 m= 7.25 m
10.3 m – 1.55 m= 8.75 m
The reduced sounding at point 1 being negative indicates that
at the time of LWOST this point would have been exposed.

Assume the zero of tide gauge is 1.00m m.s.l obtained by

direct levelling and the tide gauge readings at 9.00am and
9.10am were 1.08m and 1.10m respectively. At sea a
sounding of 10.00m was recorded for point A at 9.05am.

By interpolation the reading at 9.05am would be 1.09m.

Therefore the water level at this instant relative to
msl=1.09=1.09m. As the sounding was 10.00m, the level of
point A would be (1.09-10.00) =
-8.91m m.s.l. This means that, the point is 8.91 m below msl
• In order to survey the bed of a channel, soundings
were made at 30 m intervals between two points X
and Y. During the incoming tide, the boat proceeded
in the direction ABCD and the soundings obtained
are shown in the table below. The starting time at A
was 8:30 am and finishing time at D was 9:00 am. At
these times the tide gauge readings were 15m and
24 m respectively. If the zero of the tide gauge was
2.0 m above msl, find:
i. The depth and reduced levels of the channel at the
four sounding points, assuming uniform rate of rise of
water level and uniform rate of operation from A to D.
 Solution
• Start time = 8:30
• End time = 9:00
• Diff. between them = 30 minutes
• Interval between depth measurement = Diff/no. of
pts – 1
• 30/4-1
• 30/3 = 10 minutes
• Reduced sounding (depth) = Raw sounding – tidal height
• Reduced level of submarine surface = Reduced level of water
surface – Raw sounding
EXAMPLE
• In order to survey the bed of a channel, soundings were made at
30m intervals on a square grid system, during the incoming tide,
the boat proceeding in the directions ABCD---K and the soundings
obtained were as shown. The starting time at A was 10.00am and
finishing time at K was 11.36am. At these times the tide gauge
readings were 6.0m and 12.0m respectively. If the zero of the
gauge was 0.0m m.s.l find (1) the reduced levels of the channel at
the 25 sounding points, assuming uniform rate of rise of water
level and uniform rate of operation from A to K.

A 3.0 3.2 3.3 3.5 3.6 B

D 7.7 7.3 7.0 6.6 6.3 C
E 8.5 8.7 8.8 9.0 9.1 F
H 10.1 9.7 9.3 9.0 8.7 G
I 7.8 8.0 8.1 8.3 8.4 K.
 POSITION FIXING TECHNIQUE

• Survey vessels use three main methods of

positioning at sea or any water body. They are
Visual , Electronic and satellite methods. The
selection of each method depends on:
• Location of site
• Complexity of site and
• Volume of data to be collected or requested
by the client.
 Visual position fixing technique
When soundings or any other observations are being taken
from a boat or any other platform, the problem is to fix the
position of the boat at each observation. Fix observations
may be made:
a. entirely from the boat
b. from the shore or
c. from both.
The methods are:

1. Cross rope soundings

2. Location by range and angle from the shore.
3. Location by two angles from shore
4. Location by two angles from boat.
5. Location by tacheometry.
 Cross Rope Sounding
• This is the most accurate
method of locating soundings.
It involves stretching across the
line of sounding a rope marked
of by equidistant tags, the
soundings being taken opposite
the tags. The method is
suitable in harbour and across
rivers if the sections do not
exceed about 300m in length,
but it can also be adopted to
offshore work. It is important
that the position of the cross
rope is correlated to existing
surveys.
Offshore position fixing
Location by range and angle from the shore
• The boat is steered in range with guide poles
• The position of the boat is observed from a
theodolite station on shore by measurement of its
bearing or the angle between it and a located shore
object.
• It has the disadvantage that the surveyor in the
boat has no total control of the operation.
• Suitable instrument station should be set out
should the angle diminish to about 30°.
Range and Angle from shore
 Location by two angles from shore
• The fix is made independent of a range by having
simultaneous observations to the boat taken by
theodolites from two shore stations. The soundings are
being located by the intersections of the sight lines.
• The method may be applied to the location of a few
isolated soundings if it is used on an extensive survey.
The boat should be run on a series of approximate
ranges.
• The routine followed by the instrument men is similar
to that adopted in locations by a range and one shore
angle. They must observe simultaneously on the fall of
the signal flag in the boat and should note their watch
times.
• New instrument stations must be occupied by one
or both observers when the intersection angle falls
below 30°.
• The advantage of this system is the elimination of
the preliminary work of setting out and erecting
range signals.
• It also avoids the difficulties in locations where the
currents are strong.
• It has a disadvantage that two instrument men are
required on shore and a surveyor cannot supervise
the work throughout.
 Location by two angles from boat
• By observation of the two angles subtended at the boat
by three suitable shore objects of known position, the
boat can be located by solution of the three-point
problem (resection).
• This method is used particularly when periodic
soundings are not required.
• It does not only posses the merit of concentrating the
party as in the range and one boat angle method, but if
a sufficient number of landmarks are exhibited on an
existing map, no preliminary shore work is required.
• The angles should be observed as nearly
simultaneously as possible. A theodolite can be used
for this operation.
 Location by tacheometry.
• A Tacheometric observation on a staff in the boat
(bearing and distance) from a shore station affords
a simple method of location.
• This can be used only in smooth waters.
• If the water is shallow over the area being sounded,
the stadia rod may be dispensed with by reading
the intercept on the sounding rod at the moment it
is held on the edge of the water so that no
correction for vertical angles may be necessary.
• The following observations were made from two
stations A and B. The distance AB being 3200m and
the bearing AB to the sounding boat being 50° 40’
00;
Angle ABP = 30° 50’, Angle BAP = 60° 10’
Determine the coordinates of P if the coordinates of
A are Eating 1000 m; Northing 800 m
 Question
• In order to locate the position of a vessel
(P),observations were made with a total station to 3
shore stations A, B and C. The angles APB and BPC
were found to be 50 ° 56’ and 27° 30’ respectively.
From the plan, AB and BC were found to be 450 m
and 220 m, while the angle ABC was measured as
163 ° 18’. Determine the distances of P from A, B
and C and also the coordinate of P.
 ELECTRONIC POSITIONING
• There are several types of errors in electronic
positioning, some of which are:
• Multipath
• Cancellation zones
Multipath
- Error caused by the effect of reflections of carrier
rays by water, ground surface and or buildings near
the ray path.
- This cause a phase difference or difference in pulse
time between the master and remote stations.
 Alleviation of problem
• Lower antenna height of remote shore stations and
or
• Modify their locations to minimise background
noise

• Avoid setting up shore stations close to buildings.

• This problem is common in habours, where we have

a lot of buildings and ships.
 Range holes/Cancellation zones/
Signal fade
• When signals are transmitted from vessel to shore,
some components of the transmitted signals are
reflected by the surface of the water and will
therefore have to travel a longer distance than the
direct beam.
• However, if the difference in path lengths between
the reflected and the direct beam is equal to an
even number of half-wavelength, then the energy
content of the reflected beam cancels that of the
direct beam.
• The net effect is no distance is measured.
 Alleviation of problem
• The two most critical variables are
i. antenna height and
ii. carrier frequency.
• But since the carrier frequency is usually fixed
within a small range, the problem will depend on
the antenna height.
• This means that, the antenna height will have to be
adjusted to prevent this problem within the
intended survey area.
 Position fixing afloat
• For a fix to be made, one requires at least two lines
of position (LOP) obtained from any identifiable
source.
- These LOPs should intersect at the largest angle, for
a good geometry fix and
- Should have the smallest possible standard
deviation. Some redundancy is also desirable to
eliminate gross errors and reduce random errors.
- The fixing rate should be short so that the vessel
track is precisely defined.
• A vessel’s position is defined by the
intersection of two or more range circles
centred on coordinated points ashore or of
hyperbolae of range difference.
• The issue is complicated by the dynamic
situation since the ranges or range differences
must be obtained simultaneously to give a fix
at an instant.
 A line of position (LOP) is a set of points(locus) on
the Earth’s surface having a constant
measurement by a radio positioning system of:
• Distances ( or ranges) from the reference stations,
which result in a set of concentric circles. Each
circle corresponds to a range measurement to an
unknown point.
• This approach is called the circular mode and it is
used by electronic systems. At least two ranges
are needed to obtain a unique position.
Distance (circular) mode
It is assumed that no timing bias
exists at either the transmitter or the
receiver (active system). Passive
system where signals are transmitted
one way (transmitters to the
receivers) it is very difficult to
achieve no timing bias.
• Range differences are measured or formed to
deal with time bias at the receiver. This occurs
with one-way transmission (passive) systems
when the transmitter and receiver time bases
are different. The receiver time bias is the
same for all pseudoranges (range + bias) if the
measurements are made simultaneously or
nearly simultaneously. By differencing
between two pseudoranges, the receiver time
bias is cancelled and the range difference
remains (instead of a pseudorange difference).
• Range differences( time differences * Velocity
of light corrected for propagation delays)
reflect the change in distances from the
reference stations, which result in a set of
hyperbolae. Each hyperbola corresponds to a
distance difference measured at an unknown
point from two known points. This approach is
called the hyperbolic mode and its use is
widespread with the availability of passive
radio navigation systems.
• It can be circular (or range) with the
reference station at the centre.
• It can be a straight line, with the LOP
being established by an angular
relationship to a line going through a
reference station () or
• It can be a hyperbola along a line of
constant distance differences in
relation to two ground stations
(hyperbola).
 RANGE-RANGE MEASUREMENTS
• The mobile Mb, which is the master instrument,
transmits a coded interrogation pulse towards
the transponder beacon B1 at a shore control
station. The beacon receives this signal, decodes
it and responds by emitting a coded signal
towards the mobile. It also receives it at time t by
measuring the time elapse between signal
transmission and reception of the response from
the beacon t
• The distance D between the mobile and beacon is
thus D =V (t), where V=velocity of wave
propagation.
 PSEUDO-RANGE MEASUREMENTS
• The mobile is passive. At any time t1 of its
internal clock, the beacon transmits the signal
to the mobile. The mobile receives the signal,
t seconds after the time t1 of its clock, with t
shift relative to beacon clock.

• The path time is: R1 / Vp = t +t

• The following have been measured:
PR1 = t. VP = R1 – VP. t
• Where: PR1 = pseudo range
R1 = Mb – B1 (distance)
t = term resulting from clock shift.

• This measurement is called a pseudo-distance

(pseudo-range), as it is not directly a
measurement of the distance separating the
beacon from the mobile.
 CIRCULAR MODE
(AN EXAMPLE IS TRIDENT AND SR3 SYLEDIS)
• The master is installed in the mobile and active. The
remotes are deplored ashore and are phase locked to
the master instrument and are called slaves 1 and 2.
• The master instrument (A) emits a coded pulse train at
time tE; this time is recorded in memory at A. The two
(2) slaves’ station 1 and 2 receives the train of pulses.
They are decoded and the individual slave stations
then emit their own coded signals which in turn are
received by the mobile. The LOP’s associated with the
slave stations are concentric circles centred on each
shore slave station.
Circular positioning mode-LOP
• There are two circular modes of
operation:
Range-range mode: Signals from a
transmitter carried onboard the
vessel are received at two or more
transponders on shore and
retransmitted to a receiver on the
vessel. Receiver is Active
Circular range-range mode
 Advantages and Disadvantages
ADVANTAGES
No connection is required of transponder beacons.
They are totally independent (except for the
synchronisation of the transmission periods).
A minimum of 2 beacons only is required.

Drawbacks
Transmission capability required at mobile’s level
Transponder can respond to a limited number of mobiles
Hyperbolic mode-(range/time
difference)
• The hyperbolic mode makes use of
pseudo –range measurements. All
the beacons/slave stations are
arranged to constitute a minimum
network of 3 beacons with the
master beacon (BM) acting as a
synchronizer for the whole network.
The master beacon is placed at shore
with the slave stations.
• The mobile will be passive, needing only a receiver to
detect the phase, time and distance differences
between the signals received from the coordinated
shore stations. The mobile receives three signals: that
from the master beacon and those transmitted by the
two slave beacons. As the mobile clock features a time
shift t relative to that of the master beacon, 3
pseudo-ranges can be observed. The LOP’s will then be
hyperbolae, being also contours of phase, time or
distance difference.
• The introduction of the distances between beacons is
observed in the pseudo-ranges of the beacons B1 and
B2.
• The following measurements are obtained:
 Hyperbolic position- LOP
intersections and Geometry
• Taking the measurements under this form thus places
the fix at the intersecting point of two hyperbolae,
hence the “hyperbolic” denomination.
ADVANTAGES OF THIS MODE.
• No transmission capability is required for the mobile
since it is passive.
• Unrestricted number of mobiles using the network.
DRAWBACKS
• Imposed connection between all beacons constituting
the network.
• Three beacons at least are required.
• Increased positioning error as compared to the circular
mode, when geometry is unfavourable. That is when
the network is “viewed under a small angular opening
from the mobile.
Geometry of hyperbolic lines of
position (fig. Z)
 Radio methods

• Short range of frequencies in order of 3-10 GHz.

Mode of operation is circular ( range-range,
rho-rho) and rho-theta. Range less than 100 km
and of accuracy +/- 2 m.
 Medium range
• Range greater than 100Km up to 800km
• 1.6-133Mhz
• Circular and Hyperbolae
• UHF and MF
 Long range
• Range between 1000 and 10,000 Km
• Less than a few hundred KHz
• Hyperbolic and circular
• LF (Loran-C and Decca) and VLF (Omega)
 Satellite-based
• Doppler effect
• GPS, GLONASS ( 1.2-1.6 GHz, inclined orbits,
instantaneous 3D positions)
• radiolocation