Identifikasi Istilah Asing

• Janin 

• DNA fingerprint 
Peta Pikiran Hasil Diskusi
(mind map)

Definisi

Definisi Struktur

Fungsi

Penurunan Sifat Genetik

 Tujuan Pembelajaran
(Learning Objectives)
• Mengetahui & memahami mengenai DNA
fingerprint.(Definisi, syarat,proses,alternatif,
kelebihan&kekurangan)
• Mengetahui & memahami DNA & RNA.(Definisi,
syarat,proses,alternatif, kelebihan&kekurangan)
• Mengetahui & memahami urutan Central Dogma.
• Mengetahui & memahami faktor yang
mempengaruhi Central Dogma.
 LO 1
Mengetahui & memahami
mengenai DNA
fingerprint.
(Definisi, syarat, proses,
kelebihan & kekurangan,
alternatif)
DEFINISI
• What is DNA Fingerprinting?
The chemical structure of everyone's DNA is the same. The only difference between people (or any
animal) is the order of the base pairs. There are so many millions of base pairs in each person's DNA
that every person has a different sequence.
Using these sequences, every person could be identified solely by the sequence of their base pairs.
However, because there are so many millions of base pairs, the task would be very time-consuming.
Instead, scientists are able to use a shorter method, because of repeating patterns in DNA.
These patterns do not, however, give an individual "fingerprint," but they are able to determine
whether two DNA samples are from the same person, related people, or non-related people.
Scientists use a small number of sequences of DNA that are known to vary among individuals a
great deal, and analyze those to get a certain probability of a match.

• An additional application of DNA fingerprint technology is the diagnosis of inherited disorders in

adults, children, and unborn babies. The technology is so powerful that, for example, even the
blood-stained clothing of Abraham Lincoln could be analyzed for evidence of a genetic disorder
called Marfan's Syndrome.
 MACAM-MACAM DNA
FINGERPRINTING
• The main types of DNA fingerprinting methods in use at this time are:
1. RFLP
Restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) analyzes the length of the strands of the DNA molecules with repeating base pair patterns. DNA
molecules are long strands found tightly wound in chromosomes which are contained in the nucleus of each human cell. Within each DNA strand are
numbers of genes that determine the particular characteristics of an individual. While about 5% of the gene compositions on DNA contain this type
of genetic information, the other 95% do not. However, of the 95%, these non-coding genes contain identifiable repetitive sequences of base pairs,
which are called Variable Number Tandem Repeats (VNTR). To extract a DNA fingerprint, a Southern blot is performed and the DNA is analyzed via a
radioactive probe. The restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis is used to detect the repeated sequences by determining a specific pattern
to the VNTR, which becomes the person's DNA fingerprint. The drawback with this system is that it requires a considerable amount of DNA in order
to be used.
2. PCR
The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was developed by Karry Mullis of the Cetus Corporation in 1983 for use in research laboratories for establishing
hereditary authentication. The PCR analysis amplifies the DNA molecules using a smaller sample. On the forensic front, the PCR found to be useful in
identifying DNA fingerprints in criminal matters and in paternity tests because it requires less amounts of DNA because it makes identical copies of
the DNA sample. The PCR analysis amplified isolated regions on the strands of the DNA under examination. The drawback was that it was not as
discriminating as the RFLP.
3. AmpFLP
Amplified fragment length polymorphism (AmpFLP) came into vogue in the 90's and is still popular in the smaller countries involved in the process of
DNA fingerprinting. It remains attractive because of its relatively less complicated operation and the cost-effectiveness of the procedure. By using the
PCR analysis to amplify the minisatellite loci of the human cell, this method proved quicker in recovery than the RFLP. However, due to the use of gel
in its analysis phase, there are issues of bunching of the VTRN's, causing misidentifications in the process.
4. STR
The short tandem repeat (STR) methodology for extracting DNA is the system most widely used form of DNA fingerprinting. This system is based on
the features of PCR, as it utilizes specific areas that have short sequential repeat DNA. The STR analyzes how many times base pairs repeat
themselves on a particular location on a strand of DNA. The big advantage in this method is that the DNA comparisons can match the possibilities
into an almost endless range.
DNA fingerprinting has been extremely successful for use in the personal identification of criminal suspects, paternity issues, as well as in
identification of the deceased. DNA, however, still poses issues because the VNTRs are not evenly distributed in all people because they are
inherited. In addition, there is still the human element as the final voice in the administration of all DNA fingerprinting procedures. However, as
forensic science continues its work in DNA testing, there appears to be no limit to the value it can render to society.
SYARAT(1)
• Tes DNA tidak dipengaruhi oleh umur. Tes
dapat dilakukan pada janin dan bahkan pada
orang yang sudah meninggal.
• Dapat dilakukan dengan menggunakan sampel
dari darah, cairan semen pria, kulit, air ludah
atau rambut yang ditemukan di lokasi
kriminal.
• Meliputi tes maternitas dan paternitas.
 PROSES
Making DNA Fingerprints
DNA fingerprinting is a laboratory procedure that requires six steps:

1: Isolation of DNA.
DNA must be recovered from the cells or tissues of the body. Only a small amount of tissue - like
blood, hair, or skin - is needed. For example, the amount of DNA found at the root of one hair is
usually sufficient.
2: Cutting, sizing, and sorting.
Special enzymes called restriction enzymes are used to cut the DNA at specific places. For
example, an enzyme called EcoR1, found in bacteria, will cut DNA only when the sequence
GAATTC occurs. The DNA pieces are sorted according to size by a sieving technique called
electrophoresis. The DNA pieces are passed through a gel made from seaweed agarose (a jelly-
like product made from seaweed). This technique is the biotechnology equivalent of screening
sand through progressively finer mesh screens to determine particle sizes.
3: Transfer of DNA to nylon.
The distribution of DNA pieces is transferred to a nylon sheet by placing the sheet on the gel and
soaking them overnight.
4-5: Probing.
Adding radioactive or colored probes to the nylon sheet produces a pattern called the DNA
fingerprint. Each probe typically sticks in only one or two specific places on the nylon sheet.
6: DNA fingerprint.
The final DNA fingerprint is built by using several probes (5-10 or more) simultaneously. It
resembles the bar codes used by grocery store scanners.
KELEBIHAN
KEKURANGAN
• Problems With DNA Fingerprinting
• Like nearly everything else in the scientific world, nothing about DNA fingerprinting is 100% assured. The term DNA fingerprint is, in one sense, a
misnomer: it implies that, like a fingerprint, the VNTR pattern for a given person is utterly and completely unique to that person. Actually, all that a
VNTR pattern can do is present a probability that the person in question is indeed the person to whom the VNTR pattern (of the child, the criminal
evidence, or whatever else) belongs. Given, that probability might be 1 in 20 billion, which would indicate that the person can be reasonably matched
with the DNA fingerprint; then again, that probability might only be 1 in 20, leaving a large amount of doubt regarding the specific identity of the
VNTR pattern's owner.
• 1. Generating a High Probability
The probability of a DNA fingerprint belonging to a specific person needs to be reasonably high--especially in criminal cases, where the association
helps establish a suspect's guilt or innocence. Using certain rare VNTRs or combinations of VNTRs to create the VNTR pattern increases the
probability that the two DNA samples do indeed match (as opposed to look alike, but not actually come from the same person) or correlate (in the
case of parents and children).
•
2. Problems with Determining Probability
• A. Population Genetics
VNTRs, because they are results of genetic inheritance, are not distributed evenly across all of human population. A given VNTR cannot, therefore,
have a stable probability of occurrence; it will vary depending on an individual's genetic background. The difference in probabilities is particularly
visible across racial lines. Some VNTRs that occur very frequently among Hispanics will occur very rarely among Caucasians or African-Americans.
Currently, not enough is known about the VNTR frequency distributions among ethnic groups to determine accurate probabilities for individuals
within those groups; the heterogeneous genetic composition of interracial individuals, who are growing in number, presents an entirely new set of
questions. Further experimentation in this area, known as population genetics, has been surrounded with and hindered by controversy, because the
idea of identifying people through genetic anomalies along racial lines comes alarmingly close to the eugenics and ethnic purification movements of
the recent past, and, some argue, could provide a scientific basis for racial discrimination.
• B. Technical Difficulties
Errors in the hybridization and probing process must also be figured into the probability, and often the idea of error is simply not acceptable. Most
people will agree that an innocent person should not be sent to jail, a guilty person allowed to walk free, or a biological mother denied her legal right
to custody of her children, simply because a lab technician did not conduct an experiment accurately. When the DNA sample available is minuscule,
this is an important consideration, because there is not much room for error, especially if the analysis of the DNA sample involves amplification of the
sample (creating a much larger sample of genetically identical DNA from what little material is available), because if the wrong DNA is amplified (i.e. a
skin cell from the lab technician) the consequences can be profoundly detrimental. Until recently, the standards for determining DNA fingerprinting
matches, and for laboratory security and accuracy which would minimize error, were neither stringent nor universally codified, causing a great deal
of public outcry.
ALTERNATIF PENGANALISAAN SIFAT
GENETIKA
 LO 2

Mengetahui & memahami DNA &

RNA.(Definisi, syarat,proses,alternatif,
kelebihan&kekurangan)
DNA
DEFINISI
• Asam deoksiribonukleat,
lebih dikenal dengan DNA
(bahasa Inggris:
deoxyribonucleic acid),
adalah sejenis asam
nukleat yang tergolong
biomolekul utama
penyusun berat kering
setiap organisme. Di
dalam sel, DNA umumnya
terletak di dalam inti sel.
• Secara umum, DNA
sangat penting bagi
sebuah sel karena
berperan sebagai materi
genetik; dimana DNA
menyimpan cetak biru
(Blue print) bagi segala
aktivitas sel kecuali
pada beberapa jenis virus
(dan virus tidak termasuk
organisme).
STRUKTUR
Struktur DNA
Pada tahun 1953, Frances Crick dan James
Watson menemukan model molekul DNA sebagai
suatu struktur heliks beruntai ganda, atau yang
lebih dikenal dengan heliks ganda Watson-
Crick.DNA merupakan makromolekul
polinukleotida yang tersusun atas polimer
nukleotida yang berulang-ulang, tersusun
rangkap, membentuk DNA haliks ganda dan
berpilin ke kanan.Setiap nukleotida terdiri dari
tiga gugus molekul, yaitu :
- Gula 5 karbon (2-deoksiribosa)
- basa nitrogen yang terdiri golongan purin yaitu
adenin (Adenin = A) dan guanin (guanini = G),
serta golongan pirimidin, yaitu sitosin (cytosine =
C) dan timin (thymine = T)
- gugus fosfat
FUNGSI
• Fungsi Biologis
Replikasi  LIHAT WORD
• DNA dalam forensik
• DNA dalam komputasi
RNA
DEFINISI
• Asam ribonukleat (bahasa Inggris:ribonucleic
acid, RNA) senyawa yang merupakan bahan
genetik dan memainkan peran utama dalam
ekspresi genetik. Dalam dogma pokok (central
dogma) genetika molekular, RNA menjadi
perantara antara informasi yang dibawa DNA
dan ekspresi fenotipik yang diwujudkan dalam
bentuk protein.
STRUKTUR
Molekul RNA mempunyai bentuk yang
berbeda dengan DNA. RNA memiliki
bentuk pita tunggal dan tidak berpilin. Tiap
pita RNA merupakan polinukleotida yang
tersusun atas banyak ribonukleotida. Tiap
ribonukleotida tersusun atas gula ribosa,
basa nitrogen, dan asam fosfat.
Basa nitrogen RNA juga dibedakan menjadi
basa purin dan basa pirimidin. Basa
purinnya sama dengan DNA tersusun atas
adenin (A) dan guanin (G), sedangkan basa
pirimidinnya berbeda dengan DNA yaitu
tersusun atas sitosin (C) dan urasil (U).
Perbedaan RNA dengan DNA terletak pada
satu gugus hidroksil tambahan pada cincin
gula ribosa (sehingga dinamakan ribosa).
Basa nitrogen pada RNA sama dengan
DNA, kecuali basa timin pada DNA diganti
dengan urasil pada RNA
FUNGSI
• Peran penting RNA terletak pada fungsinya sebagai perantara
antara DNA dan protein dalam proses ekspresi genetik karena ini
berlaku untuk semua organisme hidup. Dalam peran ini, RNA
diproduksi sebagai salinan kode urutan basa nitrogen DNA dalam
proses transkripsi. Kode urutan basa ini tersusun dalam bentuk
'triplet', tiga urutan basa N, yang dikenal dengan nama kodon.
Setiap kodon berelasi dengan satu asam amino (atau kode untuk
berhenti), monomer yang menyusun protein. Lihat ekspresi genetik
untuk keterangan lebih lanjut. Penelitian mutakhir atas fungsi RNA
menunjukkan bukti yang mendukung atas teori 'dunia RNA', yang
menyatakan bahwa pada awal proses evolusi, RNA merupakan
bahan genetik universal sebelum organisme hidup memakai DNA.
 LO 3

Mengetahui & memahami urutan

Central Dogma.
CENTRAL DOGMA : The original postulate that genetic information can be transferred
only from nucleic acid to nucleic acid and from nucleic acid to protein, that is from
DNA to DNA from DNA to RNA and from RNA to protein (although information transfer
from RNA to DNA was not excluded and is now known to occur [reverse
transcription]). Transfer of genetic information from protein to nucleic acid never
occurs.
Legend:
Transcription of DNA to RNA to protein: This dogma forms the backbone
of molecular biology and is represented by four major stages.
1. The DNA replicates its information in a process that involves many
enzymes: replication.
2. The DNA codes for the production of messenger RNA (mRNA) during
transcription.
3. In eucaryotic cells, the mRNA is processed (essentially by splicing) and
migrates from the nucleus to the cytoplasm.
4. Messenger RNA carries coded information to ribosomes. The ribosomes
"read" this information and use it for protein synthesis. This process is
called translation.
Proteins do not code for the production of protein, RNA or DNA.
They are involved in almost all biological activities, structural or enzymatic.
 LO 4

Mengetahui & memahami faktor

yang mempengaruhi Central Dogma.
KESIMPULAN
• Keakurasian DNA fingerprinting hampir 100%.
• DNA fingerprinting dapat digunakan untuk :
Menetapkan tersangka atau membebaskan
seseorang dalam suatu kasus
kriminal,Memastikan identitas seseorang, misal :
yang menjadi korban kecelakaan pesawat,
Memastikan ayah atau ibu biologis seorang anak.
• DNA adalah substansi genetik, sehingga proses
DNA fingerprinting melibatkan DNA.
SARAN
 DAFTAR PUSTAKA
• http://www.fingerprinting.com/dna-fingerprinting-methods.php
– Suggested Further Reading
Ballantyne, John, George Sensabaugh, and Jan Witkowski. DNA technology and forensic science. Cold Spring
Harbor, NY: Cold Spring Harbor Lab, 1989.
Burke, Terry, ed. DNA fingerprinting: approaches and applications. Boston: Birkhauser Verlag, 1991. (Papers from
the First International Symposium on DNA Fingerprinting, Bern, Switzerland, Oct. 1990).
DNA technology in forensic science. Committee on DNA Technology in Forensic Science, Board on Biology,
Commission on Life Sciences, and National Research Council. Washington, D.C.: National Academy, 1992.
Lee, Henry C., and R.E. Gaensslen, eds. DNA and other polymorphisms in forensic science. Chicago: Year Book
Medical, 1990.
Pena, S.D.J, ed. DNA fingerprinting: state of the science. Boston: Birkhauser, 1993. (Papers from the Second
International Conference on DNA Fingerprinting, Belo Horizonte, Brazil, Nov. 1992).
Tabet, Stephen. DNA fingerprinting analysis detecting a community-based tuberculosis outbreak among HIV-
infected persons. Thesis. U of Washington, 1993.
Wambaugh, Joseph. The blooding. New York: Morrow, 1989. (Novel about the first use of DNA fingerprinting in a
court case)

• http://shivadevkota.blogspot.com/2009/11/dna-fingerprinting-process-and.html
• http://protist.biology.washington.edu/fingerprint/whatis.html
• (1) http://perpustakaan4u.wordpress.com/2008/08/31/tes-dna/