BIOLOGY INVESTIGATORY

PROJECT

BY A.S.R.S.S SNIGDHA
CLASS XII A2
 INDUS UNIVERSAL SCHOOL

🧬INDEX🧬

1. AIM
2. WHAT IS DNA
FINGERPRINTING?
3. DNA
FINGERPRINTING
PROCEDURE
4. APPLICATIONS OF
DNA
FINGERPRINTING
5. CONCLUSION

6. BIBLIOGRAPHY
 AIM
“Even the smartest thief leaves a trail
behind🧩”

I am sure many of us must have watched CID or

any such detective shows! So, whenever a crime
occurs, the first thing they do is investigating
the crime scene and digging out clues. Here, we
see that even the smallest things like strand of
hair 💇‍♀️or drop of blood🩸 could actually serve
as an important key to catch the culprit!
But how??? 🤔 How does this happen??
The answer is:
DNA FINGER PRINTING

Hence, through the means of my investigatory

project I will be explaining this very interesting,
yet very important topic in detail!
So, shall we investigate the case and catch the
culprit?
 WHAT IS DNA FINGER
PRINTING?
Now before we answer this question let’s first
understand
WHAT IS DNA?
DNA or Deoxyribo Nucleic
Acid is simply the genetic
code of life. It consists of all
the information inherited from
the parent which is required
by the offspring to
manufacture proteins for
growth, repair and other life
processes.
DNA has a double helix
structure made of 2 strands
anti parallel to each other.
While the backbone is made of
sugar and phosphate, the steps of the ladder are
made of nitrogenous bases.
The information in DNA is stored as a code made up
of these four bases: adenine (A), guanine (G),
cytosine (C), and thymine (T). The order, or sequence,
of these bases determines the information available
for building and maintaining an organism, similar to
the way in which letters of the alphabet appear in a
certain order to form words and sentences.
DNA FINGERPRINTING is a technique that observes
DNA and identifies a person. It has other rare good
names which are DNA profiling, DNA testing, DNA
analysis, Genetic profile, DNA identification, genetic
fingerprinting, and genetic analysis.

The technique was first discovered by a British

Geneticist named Alec Jeffers, who is known as the
FATHER OF DNA FINGER PRINTING.

Lalji Singh, widely regarded as the father of DNA

FINGERPRINTING IN INDIA

We have similar DNA sequences in all bodily parts,

tissues and cells (except germ cells). It remains the
same even after death. It can remain stable even
after 1000 years. 

99% of our DNA is similar, approximately. A 0.1%

difference is sufficient to make someone so unique
(Except monozygotic twins👨🏻‍🤝‍👨🏻).
Although this might sound like a small amount, it
means that there are around three million base
pairs that are different between two people😲. These
differences can be compared and used to help
distinguish you from someone else.   
Broadly, our genome has non-coding DNA (97%) and
coding DNA (3%). The coding regions have genes that
make proteins while the non-coding regions have
transposons, pseudogenes, repetitive sequences and
other uncategorized DNAs. 

The DNA fingerprinting technique relies on the

repetitive sequences of the non-coding DNA which
are highly polymorphic i.e., SATELLITE DNA.

WHAT IS SATELLITE DNA?

In Genetics, the satellites are repetitive DNA regions,
located on telomeres and centromeres and prevent
end replication problems. Satellite regions on
telomere shorten over a period of time and prevent
aging. 

Telomere shortening causes aging. The satellite DNA

is non-coding. 

The name ‘satellite DNA’ has been given because of

its separation nature in the centrifugation process.
As we said, our genome has a huge portion of
repetitive sequence which appears as a thick
prominent layer on the top of the test tube after the
centrifugation. That’s why it is known as satellite
DNA. 

We have 3 types of satellite DNA present in our

genome, which are

Micro satellites (2 to 6 base pairs repeating 5 to 200

times in a genome)

GCTACATATATATATATCGTGT

Minisatellite (6 to 100 base pairs repeating 10 to

1000 times in a genome)

GCCTACATCGGTATCGGTATCGGTATCGGTATCGGT
ATCGGTATCGGTATCGGTATCGGTATCGGTATCGGT
ACGTGT

Macro satellites (> 100 base pairs) 

VNTRs & STRs: 

“Tandem repeats are the sequences which are
located one after another into the genome.”

It varies from individual to individual. For example, if

a person “A” has 45 VNTRs (with 20bp) and 9 STRs
(with 5bp), The possibility of having this same
number of repeats for this specific VNTR and STR in
another individual is almost negligible.

Both VNTRs and STR are found in a Chromosome.

Today, STR are preferred for the DNA fingerprinting
since it’s less time consuming that way.
Difference between VNTR and STR:

VNTR  STR 

Variable number of
Short tandem repeats 
tandem repeats 
A type of
A type of minisatellite 
microsatellite 
Consists 10 to 60 bp Consists 1 to 6 bp 
10 to 1000 repeats in a 5 to 200 repeats in a
genome  genome 
Produce heterogeneous Produce homogeneous
array  array 

Here I have explained one simple example to

understand the topic more precisely. For example,
various VNTRs (V1, V2, V3, V4 and V5) are digested
with a single type of restriction endonuclease, and
the fragments are serrated on the agarose gel. 
 DNA FINGERPRINTING
PROCEDURE

STEP 1. SAMPLE COLLECTION:

We can get DNA from any bodily sample or fluid.

Buccal smear, saliva, blood, amniotic fluid, chorionic
villi, skin, hair, body fluid, and other tissues are the
major types of samples used.

In criminal cases, a buccal swab is usually taken.

The buccal swab sample collection method is non-
invasive and handy.

However, if not maintained properly, it can easily be

contaminated with bacteria. Further, the Buccal
swab DNA yield is very less. A blood sample is a good
replacement for a buccal swab sample. We can use a
blood sample as well.

STEP 2: DNA EXTRACTION

We have to first obtain DNA.

To perform any genetic applications, DNA extraction

is one of the most significant steps. Good quality and
quantity DNA increases the possibilities of getting
good results.
You can use either of the DNA extraction methods
listed below,

 Phenol-chloroform DNA extraction method

 CTAB DNA extraction method
 Proteinase K DNA extraction method

STEP 3. DNA IS RESTRICTED/ AMPLIFIED

(MULTIPLIED)

common methods are:

1. RFLP based analysis

2. PCR based analysis 
I. RFLP (RESTRICTED FRAGMENT LENGTH
POLYMORPHISM)
1. Molecular ‘scissors’, called restriction enzymes?,
were used to cut the DNA. This resulted in
thousands of pieces of DNA with a variety of different
lengths.

2. These pieces of DNA were then separated

according to size by a process called gel
electrophoresis?:
 The DNA was loaded into wells at one end of
a porous gel, which acted a bit like a sieve.
 An electric current was applied which pulled
the negatively-charged DNA through the gel.
 The shorter pieces of DNA moved through the
gel easiest and therefore fastest. It is more
difficult for the longer pieces of DNA to move
through the gel so they travelled slower. 
 As a result, by the time the electric current
was switched off, the DNA pieces had been
separated in order of size. The smallest DNA
molecules were furthest away from where the
original sample was loaded on to the gel.

3. Once the DNA had been sorted, the pieces of DNA

were transferred or ‘blotted’ out of the fragile gel on
to a robust piece of nylon membrane and then
‘unzipped’ to produce single strands of DNA. 

4. Next the nylon membrane was incubated with

radioactive probes. 
 Probes are small fragments of minisatellite
DNA tagged with radioactive phosphorous.
 The probes only attach to the pieces of DNA
that they are complementary? to – in this
case they attach to the minisatellites in the
genome.

5. The minisatellites that the probes have attached

to were then visualised by exposing the nylon
membrane to X-ray film. 
 When exposed to radioactivity a pattern of
more than 30 dark bands appeared on the
film where the labelled DNA was. This
pattern was the DNA fingerprint.
 To compare two or more different DNA
fingerprints, the different DNA samples
were run side-by-side on the same
electrophoresis gel. 
II. PCR BASED ANALYSIS (POLYMERASE CHAIN
REACTION)

1. Unlike the original DNA fingerprinting

method, DNA profiling does not use restriction
enzymes to cut the DNA. Instead it uses
the polymerase chain reaction (PCR)? to
produce many copies of specific STR
sequences.
 PCR is an automated procedure that
generates lots of copies of a specific
sequence of DNA. It only requires small
amounts of DNA to start with and can
even make copies from a DNA sample
that is partially degraded. 
 In PCR small bits of DNA
called primers? bind to complementary
sequences of the DNA of interest and
mark the starting point for the copying of
the DNA of interest. 
 In STR analysis the primers used in the
PCR are designed to attach to either end
of the STR sequence of interest. 
 The primers for each STR is labelled with
a specific coloured fluorescent tag. This
makes it easier to identify and record the
STR sequences after PCR.

2. Once enough copies of the sequence have

been produced by PCR, electrophoresis is used
to separate the fragments according to size.
 3. Each fragment passes by a laser which
causes the fragments with fluorescent tags to
glow with a specific colour.

4. The output is displayed as a series of

coloured peaks (as shown in the image below)
highlighting the colour and length of each STR
sequence.

The more STR sequences that are tested, the more

accurate the test is at identifying someone. 
 APPLICATIONS OF DNA
FINGERPRINTING
The revolutionary DNA fingerprinting technique has
many applications in diverse fields from forensic to
medical science. Here in the section, I am enlisting
several popular applications of DNA fingerprinting. 

1. REVEALING A PERSON’S IDENTITY:

 Biological identity is the 100% unique thing for
a person, in fact for any organism on earth.
DNA analysis makes it possible to reveal
someone’s biological identity. Perhaps it’s the
only better option available. 
2. IDENTIFYING DEAD BODIES.
 Yes, you hear it right! The present technique
can even identify dead bodies when mass
disasters occur. Meaning, it can identify a dead
body based on available data of a person. 
 Again, it is almost 100% accurately identify
someone, biologically. The technique helps to
identify badly damaged dead bodies. 
3. IDENTIFICATION OF BLOOD RELATIVES
 You get half of your DNA from your mother
and half from your father. STRs are therefore
passed down from parents to their children. 
 DNA profiling can be used to help confirm
whether two people are related to one
another and is commonly used to provide
evidence that someone is, or is not, the
biological parent of a child.
 DNA profiling can also be used to identify
victims of crime or major disasters and help
bring separated families back together. 
 DNA profiling has a high success rate and
very low false-positive rate. 
4. SOLVING CRIME 
 DNA profiles are very useful in forensics
because only a tiny sample of human material
left behind after a crime may be sufficient to
identify someone. 
 In the UK, a complete DNA profile consists of
11 STR sequences plus a sex determiner to
confirm if the profile is from a man or a woman.
Now all new profiles include an additional 5
STR sequences to provide consistency across
borders in Europe.
 In the USA, the Federal Bureau of Investigation
(FBI) recommends that 13 STR sequences are
tested. Many states are increasing the number
of STR sequences tested to enable more
efficient investigations across state borders. 
 A match made between a crime scene profile
and an individual profile identifies a possible
suspect. 
 A match made between different crime scene
profiles indicates a repeat offender at work.
 The police may use this DNA evidence to
support other evidence to help prosecute
someone for a crime. Complete DNA profiles
give very reliable matches and may provide
strong evidence that a suspect is guilty or
innocent of a crime.
5. WILD LIFE IDENTIFICATION

6. SEED AUTHENTICATION
 CONCLUSION
In conclusion, while evidences can be
tampered with and witnesses can turn
hostile, DNA will never lie. It will indeed,
unravel the truth even several decades
after a crime has been committed. Such
are the powers of DNA Fingerprinting.
 BIBLIOGRAGPHY

https://geneticeducation.co.in/dna-
fingerprinting-definition-steps-
methods-and-applications/
https://biologywise.com/dna-
fingerprinting-process
DNA Fingerprinting: Steps, Principle
& Applications - Embibe
https://www.yourgenome.org/
facts/what-is-a-dna-fingerprint