CHAPTER 2

Boolean Algebra and Logic Gates

LOGIC GATES

Formal logic: In formal logic, a statement

(proposition) is a declarative sentence that is either
true(1) or false (0).
It is easier to communicate with computers using formal
logic.

• Boolean variable: Takes only two values – either

true (1) or false (0).
They are used as basic units of formal logic.
Boolean function and logic
diagram
• Boolean function: Mapping from Boolean
variables to a Boolean value.

• Truth table:
 Represents relationship between a Boolean
function and its binary variables.
 It enumerates all possible combinations of
arguments and the corresponding function values.
Boolean function and logic
diagram
• Boolean algebra: Deals with binary
variables and logic operations operating
on those variables.

• Logic diagram: Composed of graphic

symbols for logic gates. A simple circuit
sketch that represents inputs and
outputs of Boolean functions.
Gates
 Refer to the hardware to implement Boolean
operators.

 The most basic gates are

Boolean function and truth
table
BASIC IDENTITIES OF
BOOLEAN ALGEBRA
• Postulate 1 (Definition): A Boolean
algebra is a closed algebraic system
containing a set K of two or more
elements and the two operators · and +
which refer to logical AND and logical
OR
Basic Identities of Boolean Algebra
(Existence of 1 and 0 element)

(1) x + 0 = x
(2) x · 0 = 0
(3) x + 1 = 1
(4) x · 1 = 1

(Table 1-1)
Basic Identities of Boolean Algebra
(Existence of complement)

(5) x + x = x
(6) x · x = x
(7) x + x’ = 1
(8) x · x’ = 0
Basic Identities of Boolean
Algebra (Commutativity):
(9) x + y = y + x
(10) xy = yx
Basic Identities of Boolean
Algebra (Associativity):
(11) x + ( y + z ) = ( x + y ) + z
(12) x (yz) = (xy) z
Basic Identities of Boolean
Algebra (Distributivity):
(13) x ( y + z ) = xy + xz
(14) x + yz = ( x + y )( x + z)
Basic Identities of Boolean
Algebra (DeMorgan’s Theorem)
(15) ( x + y )’ = x’ y’
(16) ( xy )’ = x’ + y’
Basic Identities of Boolean
Algebra (Involution)
(17) (x’)’ = x
Function Minimization using Boolean
Algebra

 Examples:

(a) a + ab = a(1+b)=a

(b) a(a + b) = a.a +ab=a+ab=a(1+b)=a.

(c) a + a'b = (a + a')(a + b)=1(a + b) =a+b

(d) a(a' + b) = a. a' +ab=0+ab=ab

Try
 F = abc + abc’ + a’c
The other type of question
Show that;
1- ab + ab' = a
2- (a + b)(a + b') = a

1- ab + ab' = a(b+b') = a.1=a

2- (a + b)(a + b') = a.a +a.b' +a.b+b.b'
= a + a.b' +a.b + 0
= a + a.(b' +b) + 0
= a + a.1 + 0
= a +a=a
More Examples
 Show that;
(a) ab + ab'c = ab + ac
(b) (a + b)(a + b' + c) = a + bc

(a) ab + ab'c = a(b + b'c)

= a((b+b').(b+c))=a(b+c)=ab+ac

(b) (a + b)(a + b' + c)

= (a.a + a.b' + a.c + ab +b.b' +bc)
=…
DeMorgan's Theorem
(a) (a + b)' = a'b'
(b) (ab)' = a' + b'

Generalized DeMorgan's Theorem

(a) (a + b + … z)' = a'b' … z'
(b) (a.b … z)' = a' + b' + … z‘
DeMorgan's Theorem
 F = ab + c’d’
 F’ = ??

 F = ab + c’d’ + b’d
 F’ = ??
DeMorgan's Theorem
Show that: (a + b.c)' = a'.b' + a'.c'
 More DeMorgan's example
Show that: (a(b + z(x + a')))' =a' + b' (z' + x')

(a(b + z(x + a')))' = a' + (b + z(x + a'))'

= a' + b' (z(x + a'))'
= a' + b' (z' + (x + a')')
= a' + b' (z' + x'(a')')
= a' + b' (z' + x'a)
=a‘+b' z' + b'x'a
=(a‘+ b'x'a) + b' z'
=(a‘+ b'x‘)(a +a‘) + b' z'
= a‘+ b'x‘+ b' z‘
= a' + b' (z' + x')
More Examples
(a(b + c) + a'b)'=b'(a' + c')
ab + a'c + bc = ab + a'c
(a + b)(a' + c)(b + c) = (a + b)(a' + c)
NOTE: Standard Forms
 A way to express Boolean function is in
standard form
 Sum of products – is a Boolean expression
containing AND terms, called product
terms (e.g. F = y’ + xy + x’yz’)
 Product of sums – is a Boolean expression
containing OR terms call sum terms
(e.g. F = x(y’ + z)(x’ + y + z’ + w)
A Boolean function may be expressed is a
nonstandard form:
F = (AB + CD)(A’B’ + C’D’)
is neither in sum of products nor in
product of sums. It can be changed to
standard from by using distributive law
F = A’B’CD + ABC’D’
Integrated Circuits
 An integrated circuit (abbreviated IC) is
a small silicon semiconductor crystal,
called a chip, containing the electronic
components for the digital gates.
 Digital Integrated Circuits are often
categorized according to their circuit
complexity as measured by the number
of logic gates in a single package.
Levels of Integration
 Small-scale integration (SSI) devices
contain several independent gates in a
single package. The inputs and outputs
of the gates are connected directly to
the pins in the package.
 Medium-scale integration (MSI)
devices have a complexity of
approximately 10 to 100 gates in a
single package. They usually perform
specific elementary digital operations
such as decoders, adders, or
multiplexers.
 Large-Scale Integration (LSI)
devices contain between 100 and a few
thousand gates in a single package.
They include systems such as
processors, memory chips, and
programmable logic devices.
 Very large-Scale Integration (VLSI)
devices contain thousands of gates
within a single package. Examples are
large memory arrays and complex
microcomputer chips
Digital Logic Families
 Digital integrated circuits are classified
not only by their complexity or logical
operation, but also by the specific
circuit technology to which they belong
and this is referred to as a digital logic
family
Some of the most popular
logic families of digital ICs
 TTL (transistor-transistor logic)
 ECL (emitter-coupled logic)
 MOS (metal-oxide semiconductor)
 CMOS (complementary metal-oxide
semiconductor)
 TTL is widespread logic family that has
been in operation for some time and is
considered as standard. ECL has an
advantage in systems requiring high-
speed operation. MOS is suitable for
circuits that need high component
density, and CMOS is preferable in
systems requiring low power
consumption.
Digital Circuit Implementation
 Wafers and Chips
 Integrated circuit (IC) chips are
manufactured on silicon wafers

 Transistors are placed on the

wafers through a chemical
etching process

 Each wafer is cut into chips

(dies)
which are then packaged
individually
Chip Manufacturing
Process
Basic IC Chip Types
– Logic circuits may be implemented …
• on single chip, or
• using many chips interconnected on a printed circuit
board (PCB)

– Main types of IC chips are:

• Standard chips
• Programmable Logic Devices (PLD)
• Custom chips
 Standard Chips

– Small number of transistors (< 100)

– Simple and fixed functions
– Logic designer must decide how to interconnect
multiple chips for desired function
– Agreed upon / standard functionality
– Popular in the 1980s – too large in physical size
for much industry use now
 7400 Series TTL Logic Chips
– The 7400 NAND Chip: pin layout
The equivalent logic layout
1 14 Vcc = +5V
2 13
00
1
3 12 2
3

4 11 4
6
5
5 10
9
6 9 10
8

Gnd 7 8 12
11
7400 13
7400 Series Implementation
cc
V

7404

7408 7432

1
x2
x3
x
f
• PLDs
– Programmable chips – functionality determined by the
designer
• Can even be reprogrammed

– Can handle more complex functions than standard

chips (approx 100 million transistors per PLD)
• FPGA: Field Programmable Gate Arrays
• CPLD: Complex Programmable Logic Devices
• PAL: Programmable Array Logic
• PLA: Programmable Logic Arrays

– These are used very extensively in industry

• Custom Chips
– Programmable chips have two major drawbacks:
• Consume space due to large number of switches for
programmability
• Slow  speed also limited by excessive switches
(resistance/capacitance)

– Custom chips
• Logic designer builds a custom chip
• Manufactured by a special fabrication facility ($$$!)

– ASIC: Application Specific Integrated Circuit

• Fast, small
• Expensive! And takes time to build and manufacture
 Positive and Negative Logic
 Binary signal at the inputs and outputs at any
gate has one of two values, except during
transition. One signal value represents logic-1
and the other logic -0.
Thank you!