Fall 2019-20

SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL AND BUILDING SCIENCES

MEE 3001 Design of Machine Elements

MODULE 2
Fatigue Strength
By
Dr. Lakshmi Pathi J
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MODULE 2
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Stress Concentration
 The elementary equations are based on a
number of assumptions.
 One of the assumptions is that there are no
discontinuities in the cross section of the
component.
 In practice, discontinuities and abrupt changes
in cross section are unavoidable due to certain
features of the component such as oil holes
and grooves, keyways and splines, screw
threads and shoulders.
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Stress Concentration
A plate with a small circular hole subjected to
tensile stress is shown in Figure.

The distribution of
stresses near the hole
can be observed by
using photo-elasticity
technique.
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Stress Concentration
 Stress concentration is defined as the
localization of high stresses due to the
irregularities present in the component and
abrupt changes of the cross section.
 In order to consider the effect of stress
concentration and find out localized stresses, a
factor called stress concentration factor is used.
It is denoted by Kt, and defined as
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Causes of Stress Concentration

Variation in Properties of Materials
• Internal cracks and flaws like blow holes
• Cavities in welds
• Air holes in steel components
• Non-metallic or foreign inclusions
Load Application
• Machine components are subjected to forces
• These forces act either at point or over a small area
• Since the area is small, the pressure at these points is
excessive
• This results in stress concentration
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Examples:
• Contact between the meshing teeth of the driving
and the driven gear
• Contact between the cam and the follower
• Contact between the balls and the races of ball
bearing
• Contact between the rail and the wheel
• Contact between the crane hook and the chain
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Causes of Stress Concentration

Abrupt Changes in Section
• In order to mount gears, sprockets, pulleys and ball
bearings on transmission shaft, steps are cut on the shaft
and shoulders are provided from assembly considerations
Discontinuities in the Component
• Certain features of machine components such as oil holes
or oil grooves, keyways and splines, and screw threads
result in discontinuities in the cross-section of the
component
Machining Scratches
• Machining scratches, stamp mark or inspection mark are
surface irregularities, which cause stress concentration
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Determination of Kt
• Mathematical method based on theory of
elasticity

• Experimental methods-Photo-Elasticity Technique

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Mathematical method based on theory of elasticity

 It is possible for simple geometry only

 Kt for a flat plate with elliptical hole subjected to tensile

force is given by
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Experimental methods
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Experimental methods
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Experimental methods
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Reduction of stress concentration

• Additional Notches and Holes in Tension Member

• Fillet Radius, Undercutting and Notch for Member

in Bending

• Drilling Additional Holes for Shaft with Keyway

• Reduction of Stress Concentration in Threaded

Members
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Additional Notches and Holes in Tension Member

(a) Original Notch

(b) Multiple Notches
(c) Drilled Holes
(d) Removal of Undesired Materials
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Fillet Radius, Undercutting and Notch for Member in Bending

Original Component Fillet Radius

Undercutting Addition of Notch

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Drilling Additional Holes for Shaft with Keyway

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Reduction of Stress Concentration in Threaded Members

Original Component Undercutting

Reduction in Shank Diameter

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Introduction to Fatigue
• In static loading, the load is applied gradually and the
failures give visible warning in advance
• In practice, other kinds of loading occurring in machine
members produce stresses that are called variable,
repeated, alternating, or fluctuating stresses
• Often, machine members are found to have failed under
the action of repeated or fluctuating stresses
• The actual maximum stresses were well below the
ultimate strength of the material, and quite frequently
even below the yield strength
• The failures due to the repeated stresses for a very large
number of times is called a fatigue failure
• Fatigue failure gives no warning! It is sudden and total,
and hence dangerous
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Stress cycles

a) Completely reversed cycle of stress b) Repeated stress

(sinusoidal)

𝜎max + 𝜎min 𝜎m = Mean Stress

𝜎𝑚 =
2 𝜎a = Amplitude stress
𝜎max − 𝜎min or Variable stress
𝜎𝑎 =
2

c) Fluctuating stress
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Factors causing fatigue failure

Basic Factors
 A maximum tensile stress of sufficiently high value.
 A large amount of variation or fluctuation in the applied
stress.
 A sufficiently large number of cycles of the applied
stress.
Additional Factors
• Stress concentration • Corrosion • Temperature
• Overload • Metallurgical structure
• Residual stress • Combined stress
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Fatigue-Life Methods
• Stress-life method
• Strain-life method
• Linear-elastic fracture mechanics method
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Stress-Life Method

High-speed Rotating-
beam Specimen
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Endurance Limit & Modifying factors

• The strength corresponding to the knee of the S-N curve
is called endurance limit or fatigue limit (𝜎𝑒 ′ )
• The limiting stress below which the load is repeatedly
applied an indefinitely large number of cycles without
causing failure

𝜎−1 = 𝐾 𝜎−1 ′
Where, 𝐾 = 𝐾𝐿 𝐾𝑠 𝐾𝑆𝐹 𝐾𝑅
KL- Load Factor
KS- Size Factor
KSF- Surface Finish Factor
KR- Reliability Factor
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Fatigue Stress Concentration Factor and

Notch Sensitivity
Fatigue stress concentration factor
𝑚𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑑 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛
𝑘𝑓 =
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑛𝑜𝑡𝑐ℎ − 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛
Notch sensitivity
𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑞=
𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑘𝑓 − 1
𝑞=
𝑘𝑡 − 1
𝑘𝑓 = 1 + 𝑞(𝑘𝑡 − 1)
When q = 0; 𝑘𝑓 = 1 and when q = 1; 𝑘𝑓 = 𝑘𝑡
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Other Factors (1)

Load Factor (KL):
For reversed bending load KL= 1
For reversed axial load KL= 0.8
For reversed torsion load KL= 0.5 (ductile) & 0.8 (brittle)
Size Factor (KS):
𝑑 < 7.5 𝑚𝑚 KS= 1
7.5 𝑚𝑚 < 𝑑 < 50 𝑚𝑚 KS= 0.85
𝑑 > 50 𝑚𝑚 KL= 0.75
Surface Finish Factor (KSF):
Mirror polished and non-ferrous metals KSF= 1
Ground or cold rolled surface KSF= 0.9
Machined surface KSF= 0.7 to 0.85
Hot rolled surface KSF= 0.3 to 0.7
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Other Factors (2)

Reliability Factor (KR):

Reliability, % KR

50 1
90 0.897
95 0.868
99 0.814
99.9 0.753
99.99 0.702
99.999 0.659
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Fatigue Design

Completely reversed Fluctuating Stresses

Stresses

Finite Life Infinite Life

For the given number of Endurance limit
cycles, the corresponding value is used for the
fatigue strength is design.
obtained from S-N curve
(for steel). Soderberg or Goodman
equation can be used
for design.
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Soderberg Equation
PSG Page No 7.6
1 𝜎𝑚 𝑘𝑓 𝜎𝑎
= +
𝑛 𝜎𝑦 𝜎−1
′
𝜎−1 = 𝐾𝜎−1
𝜎m = Mean Stress
𝜎a = Amplitude stress
or Variable stress
′
𝜎−1 = Endurance limit in
reversed bending (Lab)
𝜎−1 = Actual endurance
1 𝜏𝑚 𝑘𝑓 𝜏𝑎
= + 𝜏𝑦 = 𝜎𝑦 /2
limit including all factors 𝑛 𝜏𝑦 𝜏−1
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Goodman (modified) Equation

For ductile material For brittle material

1 𝜎𝑚 𝑘𝑓 𝜎𝑎 1 𝜎𝑚 𝜎𝑎
= + = 𝐾𝑡 +
𝑛 𝜎𝑢 𝜎−1 𝑛 𝜎𝑢 𝜎−1

1 𝜏𝑚 𝑘𝑓 𝜏𝑎 1 𝜏𝑚 𝜏𝑎
= + = 𝐾𝑡 +
𝑛 𝜏𝑢 𝜏−1 𝑛 𝜏𝑢 𝜏−1

′
𝜎−1 = 𝐾𝜎−1 𝜏𝑦 = 𝜎𝑦 /2
𝜏−1 = 0.5 𝜎−1 According to maximum shear stress theory

𝜏−1 = 0.577 𝜎−1 According to distortion energy theory

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Combined Stresses

𝜎𝑦 𝑘𝑓 𝜎𝑎 𝜎𝑦 𝜏𝑦 𝑘𝑓 𝜏𝑎 𝜏𝑦
𝜎𝑒𝑞 = = 𝜎𝑚 + 𝜏𝑒𝑞 = = 𝜏𝑚 +
𝑛 𝜎−1 𝑛 𝜏−1
𝑘𝑓 𝜎𝑎 𝜎𝑦 𝑘𝑓 𝜏𝑎 𝜏𝑦
𝜎𝑒𝑞 = 𝜎𝑚 + 𝜏𝑒𝑞 = 𝜏𝑚 +
𝜎−1 𝜏−1

1
2 2 2
1 𝜎𝑒𝑞 𝜏𝑒𝑞
= + 𝜏𝑦 = 𝜎𝑦 /2
𝑛 𝜎𝑦 𝜏𝑦
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′
𝝈−𝟏 𝒗𝒔 𝝈𝒖
′
𝜎−1 = 0.5 𝜎𝑢 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙
′
𝜎−1 = 0.4 𝜎𝑢 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑒𝑙
′
𝜎−1 = 0.35 𝜎𝑢 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑟𝑜𝑛
′
𝜎−1 = 0.3 𝜎𝑢 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑛𝑜𝑛 − 𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑦𝑠
Factor of Safety for Fatigue Loading
′
𝐸𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑖𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝜎−1
𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑎𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑦 = =
𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑜𝑟 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝜎𝑑
′
For steel, 𝜎−1 = 0.8 to 0.9 𝜎𝑦
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Factors to be Considered while Designing

Machine Parts to Avoid Fatigue Failure
 The variation in the size of the component should be as
gradual as possible.
 The holes, notches and other stress raisers should be
avoided.
 The proper stress de-concentrators such as fillets and
notches should be provided wherever necessary.
 The parts should be protected from corrosive atmosphere.
 A smooth finish of outer surface of the component
increases the fatigue life.
 The material with high fatigue strength should be selected.
 The residual compressive stresses over the parts surface
increases its fatigue strength.
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Completely reversed stresses

Problem 1
A rod of linkage mechanism made of steel with σu =
550 MPa is subjected to a completely reversed
axial load of 100 kN. The rod is machined on lathe
and the expected reliability is 95%. There is no
stress concentration. Determine the diameter of the
rod using factor of safety of 2 for an infinite life
condition.
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Fluctuating stresses
Problem 2
A shaft of 760 mm length is simply supported at its
ends. It is subjected to a central concentrated cyclic
load that varies from 12 to 36 kN. Determine the
diameter of the shaft assuming a factor of safety of
2, size correction factor of 0.8, and surface
correction factor of 0.85. The material properties
are: ultimate strength = 500 MPa, yield strength =
280 MPa, and endurance limit = 250 MPa. Fatigue
stress concentration factor = 1.5.
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Problem 3
A stepped shaft of diameters D and d is subjected
to a variable axial load P which cyclically varies
between 0 and 10 kN. The shaft is made of C20
steel, mirror polished with ultimate strength = 500
MPa and yield strength = 260 MPa. Determine the
diameters D and d with D/d=1.5, factor of safety =
2, notch sensitivity factor = 0.8 and r/d=0.2 where r
is the shoulder fillet radius.
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Problem 4
A hot rolled steel shaft of 40 mm diameter is
subjected to a torsional moment that varies from
330 N-m to -100 N-m and the applied bending
moment which varies from 440 N-m to -220 N-m.
the material of the shaft has an ultimate strength of
550 MN/m2 and yield strength of 410 MN/m2. Find
the approximate factor of safety using Soderberg
equation allowing endurance limit to be half the
ultimate strength and size factor and surface finish
factor to be 0.85 and 0.62 respectively.
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Problem 5
A steel cantilever beam of circular cross-section,
whose length being 200 mm, is subjected to a
transverse load at its free end that varies from 50 N
(up) to 150 N (down) and an axial load varies from
100 N (compression) to 400 N (tension). Determine
the required diameter for infinite life using a factor
of safety of 2. The ultimate, yield and endurance
limit strengths are 500 MPa, 400 MPa, and 250
MPa respectively. The fatigue stress concentration
factor for bending and axial loads are 1.4 and 1.6
respectivey. Take size factor as 0.8 and surface
finish factor as 0.9.