Water 1

 Water is a transparent, tasteless, odorless, and nearly colorless chemical substance,

which is the main constituent of Earth's streams, lakes, and oceans, and the fluids of
most living organisms. It is vital for all known forms of life, even though it provides no
calories or organic nutrients.
 Its chemical formula is H2O, meaning that each of its molecules contains one oxygen
and two hydrogen atoms, connected by covalent bonds.
 It forms precipitation in the form of rain and aerosols in the form of fog. Clouds are
formed from suspended droplets of water and ice, its solid state.
 When finely divided, crystalline ice may precipitate in the form of snow. The gaseous
state of water is steam or water vapor.
 Water moves continually through the water cycle of evaporation, transpiration
(evapotranspiration), condensation, precipitation, and runoff, usually reaching the sea.
 Water covers 71% of the Earth's surface, mostly in seas and oceans. Small portions of
water occur as groundwater (1.7%), in the glaciers and the ice caps of Antarctica and
Greenland (1.7%), and in the air as vapor, clouds (formed of ice and liquid water
suspended in air), and precipitation (0.001%).
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 The some characteristics of water:  pH
 Chlorides  Chemical oxygen demand
 Fluorides  Total organic carbon
 Iron and manganese  Nitrogen
 Lead and copper  Phosphorus
 Nitrate  Acidity and alkalinity
 Sodium  Fats and oils and grease (chemical), and
 Sulfate odor (physical).
 Zinc  Priority pollutants
 Biochemical oxygen demand  Volatile organic compounds
 Hardness  Toxic metal and nonmetal ions
 Turbidity  Conductivity
 Solids  Fats and oils and grease (chemical), and
odor (physical)
 Surfactants
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 Turbidity:

 Turbidity measures the cloudiness/haziness of a fluid. It is a key test for water quality,
turbidity is caused by particles of varying size scattering/absorbing the light and creating a
cloudy appearance. The turbidity of a sample will increase with the amount of undissolved
solids present.
 The original measuring apparatus that measures turbidity, called the Jackson turbidimeter. At
present, turbidity measurements are done conveniently through the use of photometers.
 The unit of turbidity is the turbidity unit (TU) which is equivalent to the turbidity produced
by one mg/L of silica (SiO2). SiO2 was used as the reference standard.
 A chemical, formazin, that provides a more reproducible result has now replaced silica as
the standard. Accordingly, the unit of turbidity is now also expressed as formazin turbidity
units (FTU).
 The other method of measurement is by light scattering. This method is used when the
turbidity is very small. The unit of turbidity in nephelometry is the nephelometric turbidity
unit (NTU).
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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qz8xHQJw6qY

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fOY2qHfBW0w
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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5uuQ77vAV_U
 pH:
 Acidic and basic are two extremes that describe a chemical property chemicals. Mixing
acids and bases can cancel out or neutralize their extreme effects. A substance that is
neither acidic nor basic is neutral.
 The pH scale measures how acidic or basic a substance is. The pH scale ranges from 0
to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral. A pH less than 7 is acidic. A pH greater than 7 is basic.
 The pH scale is logarithmic and as a result, each whole pH value below 7 is ten times
more acidic than the next higher value. For example, pH 4 is ten times more acidic than
pH 5 and 100 times (10 times 10) more acidic than pH 6.
 The same holds true for pH values above 7, each of which is ten times more alkaline
(another way to say basic) than the next lower whole value. For example, pH 10 is ten
times more alkaline than pH 9 and 100 times (10 times 10) more alkaline than pH 8.
 Pure water is neutral. But when chemicals are mixed with water, the mixture can
become either acidic or basic. Examples of acidic substances are vinegar and lemon
juice. Lye, milk of magnesia, and ammonia are examples of basic substances.

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RJzrJAcwz28

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4u3ntDKgzP0
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z-9d9QBAr1I
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mZgxUqoJMcg

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 Conductivity:

 Conductivity is a measure of water’s capability to pass electrical flow. This ability is directly
related to the concentration of ions in the water. These conductive ions come from dissolved
salts and inorganic materials such as alkalis, chlorides, sulfides and carbonate compounds. The
SI unit of electrical conductivity is siemens per metre (S/m).
 Compounds that dissolve into ions are also known as electrolytes. The more ions that are present,
the higher the conductivity of water. Likewise, the fewer ions that are in the water, the less
conductive it is.
 Distilled or deionized water can act as an insulator due to its very low (if not negligible)
conductivity value. Sea water, on the other hand, has a very high conductivity.
 Ions conduct electricity due to their positive and negative charges. When electrolytes dissolve in
water, they split into positively charged (cation) and negatively charged (anion) particles. As the
dissolved substances split in water, the concentrations of each positive and negative charge
remain equal. This means that even though the conductivity of water increases with added ions, it
remains electrically neutral.
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 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=czbbFwd5vJ4
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O9_Ye5ELKzY
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5qxenj3NpE0

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 Water Hardness:
 Hard water is water that has high mineral content (in contrast with "soft water"). Hard
water is formed when water percolates through deposits of limestone, chalk or gypsum
which are largely made up of calcium and magnesium carbonates, bicarbonates and
sulfates.
 Hard drinking water may have moderate health benefits, but can pose critical
problems in industrial settings, where water hardness is monitored to avoid costly
breakdowns and other equipment that handles water.
 Common cations found in hard water include Ca2+ and Mg2+. These ions enter a water
supply by leaching from minerals within an aquifer. Common calcium-containing
minerals are calcite and gypsum. A common magnesium mineral is dolomite (which
also contains calcium). Rainwater and distilled water are soft, because they contain few
ions. Calcium and magnesium ions can sometimes be removed by water softeners.

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 Temporary hardness:
 Temporary hardness is a type of water hardness caused by the presence of
dissolved bicarbonate minerals (calcium bicarbonate Ca(HCO3)2 and magnesium
bicarbonate Mg(HCO3)2).
 When dissolved, these minerals yield calcium and magnesium cations (Ca2+, Mg2+)
and carbonate and bicarbonate anions (CO32−, HCO3−). The presence of the metal
cations makes the water hard.
 However, unlike the permanent hardness caused by sulfate and chloride
compounds, this "temporary" hardness can be reduced either by boiling the water,
or by the addition of lime (calcium hydroxide Ca(OH)2) through the process of lime
softening.
 Boiling promotes the formation of carbonate from the bicarbonate and precipitates
calcium carbonate out of solution, leaving water that is softer upon cooling.

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 Permanent hardness:
 Permanent hardness (mineral content) are generally difficult to
remove by boiling.
 If this occurs, it is usually caused by the presence of calcium
sulfate(CaSO4)/calcium chloride (CaCl2) and/or magnesium
sulfate(MgSO4)/magnesium chloride(MgCl2) in the water, which do
not precipitate out as the temperature increases.
 Ions causing permanent hardness of water can be removed using a
water softener, or ion exchange column.

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 Disadvantages of hard water:

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 Disadvantages of hard water:

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 Sludge and scale formation in boiler:

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1. Cold and hot lime-soda process:

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2. Permutit or zeolite process:

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3. Ion exchange or demineralization:

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4cNlBXd0xNU

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Q&A
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