Irc 81 & 115

Benkelman Beam Deflection
BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

Pavement Evaluation
 All pavements deteriorate with time with repeated

application of vehicular loads and due to the effect
of climatic parameters .
 The rate of deterioration depends on the initial
condition, traffic loading, climatic conditions and
other parameters.
 It is necessary to evaluate the functional and
structural condition of the pavement periodically.
 Need for maintenance and rehabilitation can be
assessed on the basis of the evaluation study.

Pavement Evaluation
Evaluation of Pavement Performance

 Functional Performance: The ability of pavement to
provide comfortable, safe, economical riding
surface to the users can be measured in terms of
Present Serviceability Index (PSI), roughness, skid
resistance.
 Structural Performance: Related to the structural

soundness or load carrying ability of the pavement
Measured as Structural Number (SN) or in terms of
the response of pavement to load application.
Structural evaluation
 Structural evaluation of pavements can be done

either destructively or Non-destructively.
 In destructive evaluation, the pavement is cut open
to conduct tests to find the in-situ condition
(density, moisture, strength), collect samples for
testing in the laboratory.
 In Non-destructive evaluation, the pavement is
subjected to applied loading and the structural
response is measured.

Destructive Evaluation

General approach
Structural Evaluation of Pavements - The general

approach of structural evaluation is:
 Application of specified load to the pavement in a
specified manner.
 Measuring structural response of the pavement-
surface deflection is the most common response
measured.
 Back calculate pavement parameters – material
properties, thicknesses or general condition from
measured deflections to the applied loading
conditions.
Structural Evaluation
Measurement Measurement
of Stresses of Deflections
Measurement
of Strains

NDT Evaluation of
Pavements
Static Load Testing of Pavements
Example : Static load is applied using plate Load
test on to the pavement surface to measure the
surface deflection.
Plate Load Test

NDT Evaluation of
Pavements
•The application of load for Non Destructive Test
(NDT) can be in different modes
Static Load
Slow moving or Creep Load
Vibratory Load
Impulse Load

NDT Evaluation of
Pavements
• Static/Creep Loading using Benkelman beam
apparatus
• Benkelman beam is an apparatus used for measuring
the surface deflection of the pavement subjected to
standard truck load

Benkelman Beam Evaluation
of Pavements
• WASHO Method (Western American State Highway
Officials method) - Deflection noted as the wheel load
approaches the point.
• CGRA Method ((Canadian Good Roads Association

method) – Rebound deflection measured as the load
is removed from the point.

of Pavements
WASHO Method
Deflection = 0
Maximum Deflection noted

of Pavements
CGRA Method
Maximum Initial Deflection
Deflection = 0

of Pavements
• Single maximum deflection (actual or rebound) is
measured
• Structural response is measured under static or
creep load condition. Not representative of fast
moving traffic loads
• Interpretation about the structural condition of the
total pavement structure and the remaining life is
made on the basis of this single deflection

R-6 Research Project of
MoRTH
The Research Project was about Structural Evaluation
of In-Service flexible pavements, determining the
structural deficiency and design of overlay
Test Sections in different parts of the country
evaluated by different educational institutions and
report coordinated by CRRI, New Delhi

R-6 Research Project of
MoRTH
Outcomes from the project were:
1. Limiting Deflection Criteria
2. N = k1 (1/Initial Deflection)K2
3. Effectiveness of overlay thickness in reducing deflection
4. Equivalence of materials
5. Corrections to be applied to measured surface deflections
6. The information was summarised into an overlay
thickness chart

Overlay Design IRC:81-1997

Overlay
Pavements that do not have adequate structural
strength to carry the projected future traffic will have
to be reinforced by providing additional pavement
layers
Overlay
Existing
Pavement
Sub-grade

Indian Roads Congress
Overlay Design
• Guidelines for Strengthening of Flexible Road
Pavements using Benkelman beam Deflection
Technique
• First version in 1981. First revision in 1997
• Based extensively on the findings of MORTH
research scheme R – 6 entitled “Development of
Methods such as Benkelman Beam Deflection
method for Evaluation of Structural Capacity of
Existing Pavements and also for Strengthening of
any Weak Pavement

IRC:81 Scope and Principle
• For evaluation of the strengthening requirement of

existing flexible road pavements using Benkelman
beam technique
• Pavement performance is closely related to the
elastic deflection of pavement under wheel loads
• Elastic deflection under standard loading conditions
depends upon subgrade soil type, moisture
condition, degree of compaction, the thickness and
quality of the pavement courses, drainage conditions,
pavement surface temperature, etc

Benkelman Beam
Benkelman beam is a simple apparatus commonly used

for measuring the surface deflection of a pavement
under standard loading conditions
2.44 m 1.22 m
Benkelman Beam
Slender beam of length 3.66m hinged at 2.44m

from pivot end
Observed deflection
Rebound deflection

Benkelman Beam
• Static/Creep Loading using Benkelman beam

apparatus
• Benkelman beam is an apparatus used for measuring
the surface deflection of the pavement subjected to
standard truck load

Benkelman beam Evaluation
of Pavements
• Maximum Surface deflection is measured using
Benkelman beam in two different modes
• WASHO Method (Western American State Highway

Officials method) - Deflection noted as the wheel load
approaches the point
• CGRA Method (Canadian Good Roads Association) –

Rebound deflection measured as the load is
removed from the point

CGRA Method – Beam
Details
Length of beam from Hinge to Probe = 2.44 m
Length of beam from Hinge to Dial = 1.22 m Distance
from Hinge to front legs = 0.25 m Distance from Hinge
to rear legs = 1.66 m Lateral spacing of front support
legs = 0.33 m

CGRA Method – Loading
Details
5 tonne truck is recommended to apply load
Rear axle = 8170 kg (equally distributed over the two
dual wheel sets
Spacing between tyres = 30 – 40 mm
Tyres – 10 X 20, 12 ply
Tyre Pressure = 5.6 kg/cm2

Deflection Measurement –
Other Accessories
Pressure measuring gauge
Thermometer (0-100 C)
Mandrel for making 4.5 cm deep hole in the pavement
for temperature measurement

Procedure
• Mark the Point on the pavement at 60 cm from
pavement edge for single lane roads and at 90 cm
from pavement edge for wider lanes
• For divided four lane highways, the point should be
selected at 1.5 m from edge
• Place the outer dual wheel set at the location
(centred)
• Insert probe of the beam between the dual wheels.
Probe will be on the selected point locking pin
removed. Support frame levelled

Procedure
Shoulder Pavement
0.9 m for a two lane

x 1.5 m for a divided
0.6 m for a single lane
Direction of traffic

BBD Procedure
• Beam plunger brought in contact with the stem of

the dial gauge. Initial reading in dial gauge noted
• Truck driven forward to a distance of 2.7 m. Observe
intermediate reading in the dial gauge
• Move the truck forward a further distance of 9m and
note final dial gauge reading
• Dial gauge readings are to be noted when either the
rate of deformation or rate of recovery is less than
0.05 mm

Benkelman Beam Placement
Placement of
Benkelman
Beam to
measure
Pavement
Deflection
Procedure
• Measure the temperature every hour by inserting the
thermometer in the hole made in the bituminous
surface after filling the hole with glycerol
• Tyre pressure is checked at two to three hours
interval

Benkelman Beam –
Deflection Measurement
Initial Reading
Intermediate Reading
2.7 m
9m Final Reading
Benkelman beam –
• Computation of Rebound Deflection for the Point
• Subtract Final dial reading from Intermediate dia
reading. Subtract Intermediate Dial reading from
Initial reading.
• If difference between final and intermediate dial
readings is less than 0.025 mm, the actual
pavement rebound deflection is twice the difference
• If the difference is more than 0.025 mm compute the
rebound deflection as follows

Benkelman beam –
Pavement rebound deflection = 2 (Final – Initial
readings) + 2.91 X 2 (difference between final and
intermediate readings)

Benkelman beam Deflection
Survey
Selection of Homogenous Sections
Classification Pavement Condition

Good No Cracking, rutting <10 mm
Fair No Cracking or cracking confined to a
crack in the wheel track, rutting
between 10 and 20 mm
Poor Extensive cracking and rutting>20mm
Sections with cracking exceeding 20
per cent shall be treated as failed

Survey
Selection of Homogenous Sections
• On the basis of surface condition survey, the total
stretch is divided into uniform sections
• Length of each section is kept at a minimum of 1 km

Survey
Deflection Measurements
• For each uniform section of road, minimum of 10 points
should be selected at equal distance in each lane of
traffic
• Points to be selected along outer wheel paths
• Interval between points should not be more than 50 m
• On roads with more than one lane, the points on the
adjacent lanes can be staggered

Survey
• In case of extreme deflection values, additional
deflection measurements to be made
• If the highest or lowest deflections differ from the
mean by more than one-third of mean then extra
deflection measurements should be made at 25m on
either side of the point
• Measured Deflections have to be corrected to
correspond to a standard pavement temperature
• Measured deflections also have to be corrected to
correspond to worst condition

Survey
0.01 mm correction for each degree variation from
35 C
If measured deflection at 38 C = 0.8 mm, then the
corrected deflection = 0.8 – 3 X 0.01 = 0.77 mmfor
Seasonal Variation
Weakest Condition soon after monsoon. Deflection will
vary with variation in subgrade strength which is
affected by the variation in moisture content with
season

Survey
•Correction for Seasonal Variation
Field moisture content of the subgrade soil sample
has to be determined during the deflection survey
Soil type (classification) also has to be determined
Correction factors are available for different types
of subgrade soils, different rainfall conditions and
different field moisture contents
3-categories of soils – clayey with low plasticity (PI
< 15), clayey with high plasticity (PI > 15) and
sandy/gravelly

Collection of Soil Sample for
Field Moisture

Sandy/Gravelly Soil for Low
Rainfall Area

Sandy/Gravelly Soil for High
Rainfall Area

Clayey Subgrade for Low
Rainfall Area (PI<15)

Clayey Subgrade for High
Rainfall Area (PI<15)

Clayey Subgrade for Low
Rainfall Area (PI>15)

Estimation of Characteristic
Deflection
length of the uniform stretch selected
Characteristic deflection, Dc = Mean (X) of all the

measured deflections + k * standard deviation () of
measured deflections
For major arterial roads like NH & SH Dc
=X+2
For all other roads
Dc = X + 

Design of Overlay
involves the following steps
1. Selection of Design period
2. Projection of Commercial traffic for the design
period
3. Estimation cumulative standard axle load
repetitions for the design period
4. Selection of characteristic rebound deflection for
the existing pavement on the basis of rebound
deflection survey conducted using Benkelman
beam

Estimation of Traffic for
design period
Traffic : A = P (1 + r)n+10
A = commercial vehicles per day in the year of

completion of construction
P = commercial vehicles per day at last count
r = Annual rate of increase of commercial vehicles

(7.5%)
n = Number of years between the last count and
the year of completion of overlay construction

design period
= 365 x A [(1+ r)x – 1] x F X D
-----------------------------
r
Where N = cumulative number of standard axles to be catered for
during the design period
A = Initial traffic in the year of completion of construction
modified to account for the lane distribution
r = Annual rate of growth of commercial vehicles (7.5%) x =
X= Design life, years (10 for major roads, 5 for less important roads)
F = Vehicle Damage Factor

design period
Single Lane (3.75m width) – Total two-way
commercial traffic multiplied by two
2-lane single carriageway (2-way traffic) – 75% of total
two- way traffic
4-lane single carriageway – 40% of total two way
commercial traffic
Dual carriageway – 75 % of commercial volume in
each direction for dual 2-lane carriageway
For each additional lane, reduce the distribution factor
by 20%

design period
To be obtained from axle load survey
Indicative VDF Values are
0-150 cvpd Initial traffic – 1.5 (Rolling/Plain) 0.5 (Hilly)
150-1500 cvpd – 3.5 (Rolling/Plain) 1.5 (Hilly)
> 1500 cvpd – 4.5 (Rolling/Plain) 2.5 (Hilly)

Overlay Design
• Thickness charts give the overlay requirement in

terms of Bituminous Macadam construction
• BM can be converted into other materials using
equivalency factors
BM = 1.5 WBM / WMM
1 BM = 0.7 DBM / BC
• Minimum thickness of overlay = 50mm BM with an
additional surfacing course of 50mm DBM or 40mm
BC

Overlay Design Chart

of Pavements
A
B
A and B are for two different pavement systems having the
same maximum deflection but different deflection bowl
shapes
Maximum deflection alone does not give an indication of the
condition of different components of the pavement

Falling Weight Deflectometer

Structural Evaluation- General
 Structural Evaluation of Pavements involves the

application of standard load to the pavement and
measuring its responses in terms of stresses, strains
and deflections.
 Benkleman Beam is used as the earlier equipment
for structural evaluation.
 A static load is applied on the pavement surface and
rebound deflections are measured at one or more
locations.
 Measurement of static load does not simulate the
loading conditions produced by moving conditions.
Benkle man Beam – Limitations
 Benkleman Beam will under estimate the strength of

DBM and BC.
 It is labor intensive and time consuming method and
test results are mostly affected by moving traffic on
adjacent lanes.
 It is unsafe for heavy traffic conditions.
 Repeatability of test results is always a concern.
 This method does not predict the properties of the
individual layers which is necessary for comprehensive
evaluation of pavement.

Principle of FWD

Principle of FWD

Principle of FWD

What is FWD?
 Falling Weight Deflectometer (FWDs) is the device
that measure the deflection response of structures
due to a load generated by the arrest of a falling
mass.
 Data collected by FWDs is generally used to

calculate the stiffness or stiffness-related
parameters of pavements or pavement layers.

 Factors Influencing the performance of flexible pavements

such as thickness, subgrade strength, quality of each layer,
pavement surface temperature.
 When a moving wheel load passes over the pavement it
produces impulses.
 Normal stresses at a location in the pavement will increase
from zero to peak value as the moving wheel load
approaches the location.
 The time taken to the stress pulse vary from zero to peak
value is termed as the rise of pulse.
 The time period during which the magnitude of stress pulse
varies from 'zero-to-peak-to-zero' is the pulse duration.

 Peak load and the corresponding pavement responses are of

interest for pavement evaluation.
 The resulting load-deflection data can be interpreted through
appropriate analytical techniques, such as back calculation
technique, to estimate the elastic moduli of the pavement layers.
 The computed moduli are, in turn, used for
(i) The strength evaluation of different layers of in-service
pavements
(ii) The estimation of the remaining life of in-service pavement
(iii) Determination of strengthening requirement, if any and
(iv) Evaluation of different rehabilitation alternatives (overlay,
recycling, partial reconstruction, etc.)

Principle of FWD ( IRC 115-2014)
 FWD is an impulse loading device.

 The load is applied by falling mass over a circular loading
plate and the deflected shape of the pavement surface i.e.
deflection bowl is measured.
 Deflections are measured by displacement sensors placed
under the load and also at a distance of 0, 300, 600, 900,
1200, 1500 and 1800 mm.
 Different magnitude of impulse load can be obtained by
selection of a suitable mass and an appropriate height of
fall.
 Drop 100 to 600 mm can be used.

General details of FWD
 Typical Falling Weight Deflectometer (FWD) include a circular

loading plate of 300 or 450 mm diameter.
 In general 300 mm diameter load plate is recommended.
 A rubber pad of 5 mm minimum thickness should be glued
to the bottom of the loading plate for uniform distribution of
load.
 Alternatively, segmented loading plates (with two to four
segments) can be used for better load distribution.

 The measured deflection are normalized for a standard

target load of 40KN.
 Can be increased to produce at least 10 micron at 1.2 m
distance.
 Measured deflections can be normalized for 40 kN (linear)
(eg 0.8*40/45 if the measured deflection is 0.8 mm at 45
kN).
 Calibration of FWD is essential for getting accurate and
reproducible results.
 15 to 50 ms loading time.
 6 to 9 deflection sensors (1 micron resolution or 2%).
 Different sensor configurations.

 A falling mass in the range of 50 to 350 kg is dropped from a

height of fall in the range of 100 to 600 mm to produce load
pulses of desired peak load and duration.
 Heavier models use falling mass in the range of 200 to 700 kg.
 The target peak load to be applied on bituminous pavements
is 40 kN (+/- 4 kN), which corresponds to the load on one dual
wheel set of a 80 kN standard axle load.
 The target peak load can be decreased suitably if the peak
maximum (central) deflection measured with 40 kN load
exceeds the measuring capacity of the deflection transducer.

Displacement Sensors offsets for
FWD
 Typical geophone position configurations (number and radial
distances measured from center of load plate) commonly
used for flexible pavement evaluation are :
(i) 7 sensors at 0, 300, 600, 900, 1200, 1500 and 1800 mm radial
distances.
(ii) 7 sensors at 0, 200, 300, 450, 600, 900, 1500 mm radial
distances.
(iii) 6 sensors at 0, 300, 600, 900, 1200 and 1500 mm radial
distances and
(iv) 6 sensors at 0, 200, 300, 600, 900, 1200 mm radial
distances.

Target loads and acceptable ranges

Calibration of FWD
 Static calibration
• The load cells used in the FWD should be calibrated in a
standard laboratory and the readings of the load cells should
be matched to those of the reference load cell.
• The readings of the FWD load cells should be accurate to 2
percent of the reference load cell readings.
• The date of calibration of the load cell should not be earlier
than 365 days from the date of structural evaluation of
pavements using FWD.

Calibration of FWD
 Load repeatability
• For this test, FWD measurements should be carried out on a
level bituminous pavement surface, which does not have
any cracking.
• The range of load applied should generate peak central
deflections in the range of 250 m to 600 m.
• The standard deviation of the peak load in the load
repeatability test estimated from a minimum of twelve load
drops should be less than 5 percent of the mean value of
peak load.
• Load repeatability may be checked before using the FWD for
any major investigation.

Calibration of FWD
Absolute calibration of deflection transducers

• Dismounted deflection transducers should be calibrated in a
laboratory setup following any approved procedure and the
deflection transducers should be accurate to 2 percent of
reference deflections.
• The date of static calibration of geophones should not be earlier
than one year from the date of structural evaluation of pavements
using the FWD.
• Deflection repeatability check may also be conducted using the
data collected in load repeatability test.
• The standard deviation of the normalized deflections, should be
less than 5 percent of the mean value of the reading.
• The deflections produced in this test should be in the range of 250
pm to 600 pm.
• Difference between maximum and minimum of the recorded
(normalized) deflections should be within 4 m.

FWD Evaluation
 Before FWD evaluation, all relevant data about construction
history, performance data, etc should be collected.
 Pavement Condition Survey – Rutting and cracking.
 Data recorded for 50 m X 3.5 m blocks.
 Uniform sections identified (Good, Fair, Poor) as per
guidelines given.

Criteria for Classification of
Pavement Sections

Guidelines for Selection of

Guidelines for Selection of
 The spacing's given in the table are with the assumption that
the length of uniform section is 1.0 km.
 The actual spacing to be adopted can be obtained by

multiplying the spacing given in the table by the length of
uniform section.
 Deflections may be measured along the hard shoulders if the

same are proposed to form part of the new lane in case of
widening projects.

Positions of wheel paths
 Positions of wheel paths must be identified by observing the

surface condition of the road. If the same cannot be done,
the following guidelines can be used for identifying the
outermost wheel path.
Outer wheel paths of outer lanes :-
i) For single-lane two-way carriageway :- at 0.6 m from the
outer edge of the outer lane.
ii) For two-lane two-way carriageway and for multi-lane single
carriageway :- at 1 .0 m from the outer edge of outer lane.
iii) For divided carriageways with two or more lanes in each
direction :- 0.75 m from the outer edge of outer lane.

Positions of wheel paths
Outer wheel paths of inner lanes :-

i) For multi-lane single carriageway :- at 4.0 m from the outer
edge of outer lane.
ii) For divided carriageways with two lanes in each direction 4.2
m from the outer edge of outer lane.
iii) For divided carriageways with three lanes in each direction
4.2 m from the outer edge of outer lane for central lane and
at 5.2 m from the outer edge of outer lane for the lane
adjacent to median.

FWD-Data Collection
The following data should be recorded for each test point.

i) Section identity (chainage)
ii) Position of lane in the carriageway (outer, inner, etc.)
iii) transverse position of test point in the lane
iv) Measurement spacing
v) Time of test
vi) Air temperature, pavement surface temperature and /or
pavement temperature at a depth of 40 mm

FWD-Data Collection
vii) Drop number

viii) Peak values of load and deflections for each drop of load
ix) Whole time history of load and deflections should be stored
for one of the test points of each road section
x) Deflection transducer configuration selected (number of
sensors and radial offsets from center of load plate)
xi) Loading plate diameter

Steps for measuring deflection at a
test point
1. Mark the test point on the pavement.
2. Centre the load plate of the duly calibrated FWD over the test
point.
3. Lower the loading plate onto the pavement. There should be no
standing water (surface texture completely filled with water) on
the pavement surface. The loading plate should be in proper
contact with pavement surface. If a non-segmental plate is used
the presence of rutting at test location should be noted if it
affects the contact between plate and pavement surface. The
longitudinal and transverse slope of the pavement should not
exceed 10 % at the test location for accurate measurement of
deflection.
4. Lower the frame holding the displacement transducers
(geophones) so that the transducers are in contact with
pavement surface.

Steps for measuring deflection
at a test point
5. Raise the mass to a pre-determined height required for

producing a target load of 40 kN.
6. Drop one seating load. Load and deflection data for seating
load drop need not be recorded.
7. Raise the mass and drop. Record load and deflection data
into the computer through data acquisition system. While
peak load and peak deflections at different selected radial
positions must be recorded, complete time history of load
and deflections can be stored for each load drop if feasible.
8. Repeat step 7 at least two more times.

at a test point
9. If, during steps 7 and 8, the deflections measured are too

large or too small as discussed in Clause 4.4, the test may
be repeated by changing the peak load.
10. Raise the geophone frame and load plate and move to the
next test Location.
11. Record air temperature at half hourly interval.
12. Record pavement surface temperature (optional) if non-

contact temperature sensors are available.

at a test point
13. Measure pavement surface layer temperature at half-
hourly intervals by drilling holes of 40 mm depth into the
pavement surface layer. Fill the hole with a drop of glycerol.
Insert the thermometer into the hole and record the
temperature after three minutes.
14. Deflection measurements should not be made when the

pavement temperature is more than 45°C. Guidelines given
in Clause 6.4.3 may be followed for deflection
measurement in colder areas and areas of altitude greater
than 1000 m.

Determination of Pavement Layer
Thicknesses
 Pavement layer thicknesses are essential inputs to the process
of back calculation of layer moduli and, in turn, to the
estimation of remaining life and overlay requirements of the in-
service pavement.
 Layer thicknesses can be obtained from historical data, by

coring bound layers and/or by excavating test pits and/or
through the non-destructive technique of Ground Penetrating
Radar (GPR) survey.
 It is recommended that 0.6 m x 0.6 m test pits be excavated at

1.0 km interval or at suitable larger interval where other records
suggest uniformity of pavement composition in such larger
sections.

Dynamic Cone Penetrometer (DCP)
 Dynamic Cone Penetrometer (DCP) tests may be

conducted on the subgrade layer exposed in the test
pits to obtain the Dynamic Cone Penetrometer value
for in-situ subgrade.
 The DCP values obtained with a 60° cone can used
to estimate the back calculated modulus value of
subgrade layer using equation:
DCP = Dynamic Cone Penetrometer value (mm/blow)

Analysis of Data
 Deflections should decrease with distance.
 Deflection should not be more than the capacity of the

sensor.
 No FWD test when the temperature is more than 45 degree

Celsius.
 Collect layer thickness data.

Estimation of sample size
The following equation can be used for estimating the sample

size (n)
n = sample size
z = normalized normal deviate which can be obtained from
standard
statistical tables for a selected confidence level
CV = coefficient of variation of deflection (standard

deviation/mean) expressed as percentage
ME = acceptable margin of error (as percentage of mean)

Estimation of sample size
 90% confidence level and 10% acceptable margin of error

(ME) recommended.
 CV of 15, 30 and 45% may be considered for Good, Fair and
Poor sections (AASHTO 1993).
 For a one sided confidence level of 90% for which the
standard normal deviate is 1.285 and for 10% ME, the values
of n for Good , fair and Poor sections are 4, 15, 33
 If the uniform section length is 2.0 km and is fair, 15
observations should be made in 2.0 km , i.e. at a spacing of
2000/15 = 133 m.
 Measurement scheme given for different carriageways.

Identification of homogeneous
sections
 A statistical technique popularly used for identification of
homogeneous sections is the "Cumulative Difference"
approach.
 The series of cumulative differences (zj for the measured
sequence of a given variable 'x' (SCI, subgrade strength, etc.)
can be obtained using the following expression.

Back calculation
 Back Calculation is the process of selection and adjustment

of layer moduli using any technique (iteration, database
searching, closed-form solution, optimization) so that the
deflections computed using the adjusted layer moduli are
close to the measured deflections.

Back Calculation In A Nutshell
 Most back calculation programs, including those used to generate
the back calculated modulus data in the LTPP-computed parameter
tables, involve the use of numerical integration subroutines that
are capable of calculating FWD pavement deflections and other
parameters, given the stiffness's (or moduli) of the various
pavement layers and their thicknesses, etc.
 If all assumptions are correct, meaning each layer is an elastic
layer, is isotropic and homogeneous, and all other boundary
conditions are correct, then it is possible to iterate various
combinations of moduli until there is a virtually perfect match
between measured and theoretical FWD deflections.
 In this manner, a solution to the problem of deriving moduli from
deflections, instead of the other way around, is obtained.

Backcalculation using KGPBACK
 Back calculate using KGPBACK.
 Suitable moduli ranges are to be assigned.
 Subgrade 20 to 100 MPa or 5 to 20 times CBR (in-situ CBR
estimated from DCP) OR from deflections measured at 1200
mm, 1500 mm and 1800 mm.
 Granular 100 to 500 MPa.
 Thick bituminous layers without much cracking (750 to 3000
MPa).
 Distressed Bituminous layers (fair to Poor) 400 MPa to 1500
MPa.

Performance Criteria
 IRC:37 performance criteria for design of bituminous

pavements can be used.
 Rutting along wheel paths and cracking of bituminous layer
are the main distresses considered.

Mechanistic Parameters controlling
Pavement Performance / distresses

Computation of Strains
 Indian Roads Congress (IRC:37-2001) adopts Linear Elastic
Layered Theory for analysis of flexible pavements.
 Recommends that the pavements be modeled as Three –
Layer Systems with Bituminous surface, granular base and
subgrade.
 Interfaces between layers are considered to be rough
 The top two layers are assumed to be infinite in horizontal
direction while the subgrade in semi-infinite.

Computation of Strains
Inputs required for analysis

 Thicknesses of the first
two layers
 Elastic moduli of the
three layers
 Poisson ratio values of
the three layers

Computation of Critical Strains
 Loading Considered Standard axle load (80 kN) – One dual
wheel set only is considered, tyre pressure 0.56 MPa (80 psi).

Rutting Criterion

Fatigue Criterion

Backcalculation of Layer Moduli
Correction for Temperature

 The backcalculated modulus of bituminous layer obtained
from deflection survey conducted at a temperature “T2” °C
can be corrected to estimate the modulus corresponding to a
temperature of "T1" °C using equation.

Correction for Temperature
 The relationship can be extrapolated up to a temperature

range of 20 to 45 °C.
 Temperature correction need not be applied to backcalculated
modulus values of thin bituminous layers (less than 40 mm)
and for "poor" sections.
 In colder areas and areas of altitude greater than 1000 m
where the average daily temperature is less than 20 °C for
more than 4 months in a year, the standard pavement
temperature of 35 °C will not apply.

Correction for Seasonal Variation

Correction for Seasonal Variation

Computation of Design Traffic
where,
N = cumulative number of standard axles to be catered for in the
design in terms of million standard axles, msa
A = Initial traffic in the year of completion of construction, in terms
of number of Commercial Vehicles Per Day (CVPD)
D = Lane distribution factor F = Vehicle Damage Factor (VDF)
n = Design life in years
r = Annual growth rate of commercial vehicles expressed in decimal
(eg : for 5 percent annual growth rate, r = 0.05)

Computation of Design Traffic
 The traffic in the year of completion is estimated

using the following formula.
A=P(1+r)^X
where,
P = Number of commercial vehicles as per last count
x = Number of years between the last count and the
year of completion of construction

Distribution of commercial traffic
over the carriageway
i) Single-lane roads (3.75 m width)
Traffic tends to be more channelized on single-lane roads
than two-lane roads and to allow for this concentration of
wheel load repetitions, the design should be based on total
number of commercial vehicles in both directions.
ii) Two-lane single carriageway roads

The design should be based on 50 percent of the total
number of commercial vehicles in both directions. If vehicle
damage factor in one direction is higher, the design traffic in
the direction of higher VDF is recommended.

Distribution of commercial
traffic over the carriageway
iii) Four-lane single carriageway roads

The design should be based on 40 percent of the total
number of commercial vehicles in both directions.
iv) Dual carriageway roads

The design of dual two-lane carriageway roads should be
based on 75 percent of the number of standard axles in each
direction. For dual three-lane carriageway and dual four-lane
carriageway, the distribution factor will be 60 percent and 45
percent respectively.

Vehicle Damage Factor (VDF)
 The Vehicle Damage Factor (VDF) is a multiplier for
converting the number of commercial vehicles of different
axle loads to equivalent number of standard axle load (80
kN) repetitions.
 It gives the equivalent number of standard axles per

commercial vehicle.
 The vehicle damage factor is arrived at from axle load

surveys conducted on typical road sections so as to cover
various influencing factors such as traffic mix, type of
transportation, type of commodities carried, time of the
year, terrain, road condition and degree of enforcement.
Axle Load Survey
Sample Size for Axle Load Survey

Equivalent axle load factors
 The following equations are used to compute equivalent

axle load factors for different axles assembly.

Vehicle damage factor
Indicative VDF Values

OVERLAY DESIGN
(i) Measurement of surface deflections of the in-service
pavement homogeneous section using FWD.
(ii) Normalization of the deflections to correspond to a

standard load of 40 kN.
(iii) Collection of information about layer type and layer

thicknesses.
(iv) Backcalculation of pavement layer moduli from the

normalized deflections using an appropriate backcalculation
software.

OVERLAY DESIGN
(v) Adjustment of the bituminous layer modulus

(backcalculated) to a standard temperature of 35 C
(vi) Adjustment of the subgrade modulus to correspond to

post-monsoon condition.
(vii) Analysis of the in-service pavement using elastic layer

theory with the backcalculated (corrected) moduli and
layer thicknesses collected from field as inputs.

OVERLAY DESIGN
(vii) This includes computation of critical Strains

o Horizontal Tensile Strain at the bottom fiber of bituminous
layer.
o Vertical Compressive Strain on top of subgrade. The loading
configuration and the locations of critical strains considered
for analysis will be similar to those adopted in IRC:37-2012.
(viii) Estimation of the remaining life of the pavement using the
fatigue and rutting performance criteria adopted in IRC:37. The
strain values obtained in step vii will be used to estimate the
remaining lives from fatigue and rutting consideration.

OVERLAY DESIGN
(ix) For design of bituminous overlay, a trial thickness of

overlay of an appropriate material has to be selected and
the critical strains have to be evaluated. The modulus value
of the bituminous overlay material may be selected as per
the guidelines given in IRC:37-2012.
(x) Design overlay thickness can be selected by trial in such a

way that the computed critical strains are less than the
permissible limits given by the performance criteria for the
design traffic level considered.

Backcalculation Methods
Available methods differ in terms of
(1) Pavement system considered
(2) Theory used for the analysis of pavement
(3) Backcalculated parameters and
(4) Backcalculation technique

Backcalculation Models
 Number of commercial backcalculation softwares available.

 Different models were developed at IIT Kharagpur
o Regression
o ANN
o GA-based
o ANN-GA based
 BACKGA – A GA based model is used currently

Interpretation of FWD data
• FWD pavement evaluation data includes

Load applied
Load plate radius
Surface deflections at different radial distances
• This data is used to Back calculate the material

properties of different layers in flexible pavements.
• Thicknesses of flexible pavement layers also can be
back calculated though layer thicknesses are usually
taken as inputs for back calculation.

Back calculation
It is the process of selection and adjustment of layer

moduli using any technique (iteration, database
searching, closed-form solution, optimization) so that
the deflections computed using the adjusted layer
moduli are close to the measured deflections.

Back calculation Methods
Available methods differ in terms of

(1) Pavement system considered
(2) Theory used for the analysis of pavement
(3) Back calculated parameters and
(4) Back calculation technique

Major Application
Major Highways-
Structural Overlay of
Pavements using FWD
(in place of BBD
Technique)

Guidelines for an FWD-based
Overlay Design Method for India
• Pavement Evaluation Procedure
• Performance Criteria
• Back calculation of Inputs to be used in the
performance criteria
• Estimation of remaining life
• Design of overlay

IRC:115-2014 ( Formulated by
IIT Kharagpur)
These guidelines are meant for
evaluating the strengthening
requirement of existing flexible road
pavements using Falling Weight
Deflectometer technique.
The recommendations are mainly
based on the findings of MoRTH
Research study (R-81) “Structural
evaluation of pavements using Falling
Weight Deflectometer” and other
relevant information gathered from
other sources”

OVERLAY DESIGN METHODOLOGY
(i) Measurement of surface deflections of the in-service

pavement homogeneous section using FWD
(ii) Normalization of the deflections to correspond to a
standard load of 40 kN
(iii) Collection of information about layer type and layer
thicknesses
(iv) Backcalculation of pavement layer moduli from the
normalized deflections using an appropriate
backcalculation software (eg : E1, E2, E3)

(v) Adjustment of the bituminous layer modulus

(backcalculated) to a standard temperature of 35 C
E (T1) = λ E (T2)
Where λ, temperature correction factor =(1-0.238ln(T1))/(1-0.238ln(T2))
Where, E (T1) = backcalculated modulus at temperature T1

E (T2) = backcalculated modulus at temperature T2

(vi) Adjustment of the subgrade modulus to correspond to

post-monsoon condition
Seasonal Correction
Esub_mon = 28.39 + 0.2888 Esub_win
Esub_mon = 21.821+ 0.3641 Esub_sum

(vi) Analysis of the in-service

pavement using elastic layer
theory with back calculated
(corrected) moduli and layer h1 E1, 1
et
thicknesses collected from Bituminous
field as inputs. Granular
h2
(vii) This includes computation of E2, 2
critical Strains (a) Horizontal ez
Tensile Strain at the bottom E3, 3
fiber of bituminous layer and Subgrade
(b) Vertical Compressive
Strain on top of subgrade.

(viii) Estimation of the remaining life of the pavement

using the fatigue and rutting performance criteria
adopted in IRC:37. The strain values obtained in
step vii will be used to estimate the remaining lives
from fatigue and rutting consideration
NF = 2.21 * 10-4 (1/et)3.89(1/Eac)0.854
NF = Cumulative std. Axle load repetitions before the pavement develops
20% fatigue cracking
et = Initial horizontal tensile strain at the bottom of bituminous layer
Eac = Elastic Modulus of bituminous layer, MPa
NR = 4.1656 * 10-8 (1/ez)4.5337
NR = Cumulative std. Axle load repetitions before the pavement develops 20
mm average rut depth
ez = Initial vertical strain on top of subgrade
For design of bituminous overlay, a trial thickness of overlay of

an appropriate material has to be selected and the critical
strains have to be evaluated. The modulus value of the
bituminous overlay material may be selected as per the
guidelines given in IRC:37-2012
(x) Design overlay thickness can be selected by trial in such a

way that the computed critical strains are less than the
permissible limits given by the performance criteria for the
design traffic level considered.

Design Example
Design traffic = 100 msa

Thicknesses :- Bit. Layer = 95, Granular = 540
Deflections measured in January
Pavement Surface Temperature = 35 0C
Surface Deflections measured using FWD and normalised for 40
kN are :- 0.73517, 0.43835, 0.28919, 0.21580, 0.16638, 0.13406
mm
Back calculated Moduli (MPa) are :- 1350.4, 172.7, 52.5

Design Example
Subgrade Modulus corrected for season = 43.6 MPa

E(sub_mon) = 28.39+0.2888 E(sub_win)
Tensile Strain = 0.0004294; Vertical Strain = 0.0007214;
Remaining life :- 3.5 msa (Rutting); 5.9 msa (fatigue)
Providing a 160 mm BC overlay (E of 1695 MPa) the life extends
to 123.5 msa (Rutting) and 124.9 msa (fatigue)

Huang

Huang

Huang

Huang

References
 IRC:37-2012, "Tentative Guidelines for the Design of Flexible Pavements",

Indian Roads Congress, New Delhi.
 B.B. Pandey, "Structural Evaluation of Pavements using Falling Weight
Deflectometer", IIT Kharagpur.
 Dr. K. Sudhakar Reddy, “Pavement Evaluation and Rehabilitation IRC:81-
1997 & IRC:115-2014” IIT Kharagpur.
 IRC:81-1997, "Guidelines for Strengthening of Flexible Road Pavements
Using Benkelman Beam Technique", Indian Roads Congress, New Delhi.
 IRC:115-2014, "Guidelines For Structural Evaluation And Strengthening Of
Flexible Road Pavements Using Falling Weight Deflectometer (FWD)
Technique”, Indian Roads Congress, New Delhi

THANK YOU

Irc 81 & 115

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Benkelman Beam Deflection

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

 All pavements deteriorate with time with repeated

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

Evaluation of Pavement Performance

 Structural Performance: Related to the structural

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BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

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BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

Plate Load Test

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BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

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• CGRA Method ((Canadian Good Roads Association

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BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

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• For evaluation of the strengthening requirement of

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

Benkelman beam is a simple apparatus commonly used

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• WASHO Method (Western American State Highway

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BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

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0.9 m for a two lane

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BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

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Classification Pavement Condition

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BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

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BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

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Characteristic deflection, Dc = Mean (X) of all the

BITS Pilani, Hyderabad Campus

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