Carbohydrates,

Sugars, Starches
and Fiber

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What Are Carbohydrates?
 Produced by plants during photosynthesis
 After eating plant foods, humans convert the carbohydrates
into glucose
 Glucose
• Most abundant carbohydrate
• Preferred source of energy for the blood, brain, and
nervous system
 Carbohydrate-rich plant foods make up the foundation of
diets all over the world

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Classification of Carbohydrates
 Simple carbohydrates
• Monosaccharide
• Disaccharide
• Perceived as sweeter than complex carbohydrates
- Mixes with saliva and reacts with taste buds
 Oligosaccharides
 Complex carbohydrates
• Polysaccharides

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Monosaccharides
 Three nutritionally important monosaccharides
• Glucose
• Fructose
• Galactose

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Monosaccharides
 Glucose
• Blood glucose and blood sugar in the body
• Most abundant monosaccharide in the body
- Is the preferred and main source of energy for the
brain and red blood cells
• Part of every disaccharide
• Only monosaccharide in starches

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Monosaccharides
 Fructose
• Sweetest of natural sugars
• Found abundantly in fruits
• Part of high-fructose corn syrup
 Galactose
• Commonly occurs as part of dissaccharide lactose

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The Structural Differences between Glucose,
Galactose, and Fructose

Figure 4.2
Disaccharides
 Three Disaccharides
• Sucrose
- Most common
• Lactose
• Maltose
- Least common
- Formed from digestion of starches

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Monosaccharides Link to Form Disaccharides

Figure 4.3
Polysaccharides
 Starch
• Plants store glucose in chains of starch
- Amylose
- Straight chain
- More resistant to digestion
- Resistant starch
 May improve health of digestive tract
 May improve glucose tolerance
 May stimulate growth of beneficial intestinal
bacteria
- Amylopectin
- Branched chains
- Easier to digest
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Polysaccharides
 Fiber
• Nondigestible polysaccharides
• Provides no energy
• Classification
- Soluble
- Pectins, beta-glucan, some gums, mucilage
- Easily fermented by intestinal bacteria
• Carbon dioxide, methane, some fatty acids
- Insoluble
- Cellulose, lignin, some hemicelluloses
- Not easily fermented
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Fiber Health Benefits
 Soluble fibers
• Slow gastric emptying and may delay absorption of some
nutrients
- Helps reduce serum cholesterol
- Improve appetite control
- Normalize blood glucose levels
• May help protect against colon cancer
 Insoluble fibers
• Relieves constipation
 Most plant foods contain both soluble and insoluble fibers

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Polysaccharides
 Glycogen
• Storage form of glucose in animals
• Long, branched chains of glucose
• Stored in liver and muscle
• Liver glycogen response to blood glucose (BG) levels

 BG  glycogen breakdown   BG

• Muscle glycogen can be broken down for energy for the

muscle

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The Comparison of Starch and Glycogen Molecules

Figure 4.4
Oligosaccharides
 Similar in length to simple carbohydrates
 Similar in makeup to polysaccharides
 Humans lack the enzymes necessary to digest them
 Intestinal microflora digest and ferment them
• Cause bloating, discomfort, and flatulence
 Food sources
• Legumes, beans, cabbage, brussels sprouts, broccoli

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The Structure of an Oligosaccharide

Figure 4.7
Quick Review
 Complex carbohydrates
• Polysaccharides: starch, fiber, glycogen
• Fiber
- Soluble – fermented by intestinal bacteria; moves
slowly
- Insoluble – moves quickly through and reduces
constipation
- Functional – added to foods
 Oligosaccharides
• Contain three to ten units
• Part of cellulose in cell walls

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Carbohydrate Digestion and Absorption
 Disaccharides and starches are digested to monosaccharides
 Monosaccharides are easily absorbed
 Fiber passes through the GI tract undigested

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Figure 4.8a
Figure 4.8b
Figure 4.8c
Figure 4.8d
Absorption of Carbohydrates
 Once digested to monosaccharides
• Absorbed through the intestinal cell mucosa
• Transported to the liver via the portal vein
• Metabolic needs direct fate of the monosaccharides
- Galactose and fructose
• Used by the liver for energy
• Converted to glucose
- Glucose
• Used for energy
• Converted to glycogen through glycogenesis
• Converted to glycerol and fatty acids for storage in
addipocytes

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Glucose Is Stored in the Liver and Muscle
Cells as Glycogen

Figure 4.9
Quick Review
 Digestion of carbohydrates begins in the mouth
 Most carbohydrate digestion takes place in the small
intestine
 Carbohydrates are broken down to monosaccharides for
absorption
 Monosaccharides are converted to glucose in the liver and
• Used as energy
• Stored as glycogen in the liver and muscle cells
• Stored as glycerol and fatty acids in the adipocytes
 Fiber travels to the colon undigested and most is eliminated
from the body

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Lactose Intolerance
 Deficiency of lactase, the enzyme that digest lactose
• Maldigestion – inability to digest lactose due to low
levels of the enzyme
• Intolerance
- Maldigestion resulting in nausea, cramps, bloating,
flatulence, and diarrhea

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Functions of Carbohydrate
 Provide energy
• 4 kilocalories per gram
 Maintain blood glucose
• Carbohydrate intake
• Glycogenolysis > 4 hours after a meal
 Spare protein
• Prevents the need for glyconogenesis
 Prevents ketosis

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How to Maintain Blood Glucose Levels
 Goal for blood glucose is 70–100 mg/dl
 Insulin – lowers blood glucose levels
• Needed for glucose to enter the cell from the blood
stream
- Exception: liver, kidney, and brain cells
• Helps convert glucose to glycogen through glycogenesis
• Helps convert glucose to fatty acids through lipogenesis
• Inhibits lipolysis
 Glucagon – increases blood glucose levels
• Stimulates the release of glucose into the blood
• Stimulates glycogenolysis
• Stimulates gluconeogensis
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Insulin and Glucagon Regulate Glucose Metabolism

Figure 4.10
How to Maintain Blood Glucose Levels
 Epinephrine and norepinephrine – increases blood glucose
• Stimulate glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis
 Cortisol – increases blood glucose
• Stimulates gluconeogensis
• Reduces uptake of glucose by the muscle cells
 Growth hormone – increases blood glucose
• Stimulates fat breakdown for energy
• Reduces uptake of glucose by the muscles
• Increase glucose production in the liver

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Quick Review
 Glucose is the body’s preferred source of energy
• Especially the brain and red blood cells
 Adequate carbohydrate intake
• Maintains blood glucose levels
• Spares protein
• Prevents ketosis
 Blood glucose levels are maintained by two hormones
• Insulin which lowers blood glucose levels
• Glucagon which raises blood glucose levels
 Epinephrine, norepinephrine, corisol, and growth hormone
raise blood glucose levels.
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Glycemic Index
 Classifies the effects of carbohydrate-containing foods on
blood glucose
 May be helpful for diabetics
 Glycemic index (GI) refers to the measured upward rise,
peaks, and falls of blood glucose following consumption of
high-carbohydrate food
• Ranks foods according blood glucose

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Glycemic Load
 Glycemic load (GL) – adjust GI by taking into account the
amount of carbohydrate consumed in a typical serving of
food
 Factors affecting GI
• Ripeness of fruit
• Cooking
• Processing
• Size of food pieces
• Amount of fiber
• Combinations of food eaten

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Glycemic Index and Glycemic Load
 Usefulness of GI and GL for disease prevention and weight
management is controversial
 Is helpful in educating people about
• Carbohydrate content of foods
• Portion sizes
• Serving numbers

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Dietary Fiber
 Benefits
• Helps lower risk of
- Bowel irregularity
- Obesity
- Heart disease
- Cancer
- Diabetes mellitus

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Dietary Fiber
 Chronic constipation can
lead to diverticulosis and
diverticulitis
 Prevention of constipation
and diverticulosis
• Insoluble fiber helps
reduce transit time of
foods in the colon
• Soluble fiber helps make
stool easier to pass by
increasing bulk and
softening texture

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Dietary Fiber
 Prevention of heart disease and diabetes
• Viscous, soluble fiber helps lower elevated blood
cholesterol levels
- Interferes with reabsorbtion of bile acid

© 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 4.13

Dietary Fiber
• Slow moving, viscous, soluble fiber may reduce the rate
which fat and carbohydrate are absorbed
- Decreasing level of fat in blood and improving insulin
sensitivity, decrease risk of heart disease
• Insoluble fiber has been shown to promote heart health
• Viscous soluble fiber helps slow digestion and
absorption helping control blood glucose levels

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Dietary Fiber
 Fiber helps reduce the incidence of several cancers
• Decreases the amount of time cancer-promoting
substances spend in contact with the intestinal lining
• Encourages the growth of colon-friendly bacteria
• Reduces acid in the colon
 Helps prevent obesity
• Increase satiety
• Reduce food intake

Caution: Increase dietary fiber and fluid intake

gradually

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Quick Review
 Glycemic index (GI) ranks foods according to effects on
glucose levels compared to white bread or pure glucose
 Glycemic load adjust for serving size
 Foods that contain high fiber or are eaten with protein and
fat generally have a lower GI.
 High-fiber diet health benefits include reduced risk of
• Constipation
• Diverticulosis
• Heart disease
• Obesity
• Diabetes Mellitus
• Cancer
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Importance of Whole Grains
Carbohydrate Sources
 Best choices should include nutrient-dense, low-saturated
fat foods, simple carbohydrates, fiber, complex
carbohydrates

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Food Sources of Carbohydrates

Figure 4.14
Food Sources of Fiber

Figure 4.15
Quick Review
 Best sources of carbohydrates are
• Fresh fruits and vegetables • Legumes
• Whole grains • Low-fat dairy products
 Excellent sources of fiber are
• Whole grains • Legumes
• Fruits • Nuts
• Vegetables • Seeds
 Packaged foods can be good sources of starch and fiber
• Read label carefully
• Avoid too much sugar, fat, and kilocalories

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Natural versus Added Sugar
 Naturally occurring sugar
• Sugars such as fructose and lactose found naturally in
foods
• Tend to be nutrient dense
 Added sugar
• Sugars added to processed foods and sweets
• Empty calories

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Slices of an Orange versus Orange Slices

Figure 4.18
Added Sugar
 Reasons sugar is added to foods
• To keep product moist
• To turn pastries a golden brown
• Preservative
• Thickening agent
• Make yeast rise
• Make foods taste sweet

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Finding Added Sugars on the Label

Figure 4.19
Americans Drink the Majority of Their Sugar

Figure 4.20
Health Effects of Sugar
 Sugar can contribute to
• Dental carries
• Elevated level of fat in the blood
• Lowing of HDL cholesterol
 Sugar does not cause
• Increased risk of diabetes
• Hyperactivity in children
 Sugar is not considered an addictive substance

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Quick Review
 Taste buds do not distinguish between naturally occurring
sugar and added sugar
 Foods with naturally occurring sugar provide more
nutrition and satiation than empty-calorie sweets
 There are numerous names for added sugar
 Soft drinks are the number-one contributor of added sugars
to U.S. diets

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Putting It All Together
 Carbohydrates are an important part of a healthy diet
 Whole grains, fruits, vegetables, and lean dairy products
• Provide carbohydrates and vitamins and minerals
• Should be the predominant source of carbohydrates
 Whole grains, fruits, and vegetables are a good source of
fiber and phytochemicals
• Adequate amounts of these can prevent many chronic
disease
 Sugary foods should be eaten in moderation

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