ROLLING RESISTANCE

MEASUREMENT AND MODEL

DEVELOPMENT
 INTRODUCTION
• US generates about 7 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide and transportation
sector contributes to around 29% of that.
• EU reduced total greenhouse gas emission by 5% between 1990-2006 but in
the meantime carbon dioxide emission shot up to 26%.
• Rolling resistance related to the road surface is responsible for about 20% of
the carbon dioxide emiited by a passenger car.
 CATEGORIES OF RESISTANCE
• Rolling Resistance
• Air Resistance
• Inertial Resistance
• Gradient Resistance
• Side force Resistance
• Transmission Loss
• Losses from use of auxiliary equipment
• Engine friction
 GOALS OF THIS PAPER

• To see different ways of measuring rolling resistance that are being practiced
on regular basis.
• To see surface roughness and texture modeling.
• Review of interaction between road surface and tire.
• Review of macro-modeling of rolling resistance.
 WHAT IS ROLLING RESISTANCE!!

The rolling resistance is defined as the energy loss per distance

traveled by the vehicle due to nonelastic deformations of the tires
and losses in the wheel suspension system
 ROLLING RESISTANCE MEASURING
TECHNIQUES

Fuel
Drum tests of Trailer Coast-Down
Consumption
tire Method Method
Method
 DRUM TEST OF TIRES
• This test is performed by holding the
test tire up against a drum and
applying a load to the tire.
• This test was standardized in 1975
when the Society of Automotive
Engineers(SAE) formed a
committee.
• This test has been used for several
other related purposes such as
surface texture testing, warm-up
effects, wheel cornering effects,
prediction of cavity air temperature
etc.
 TRAILER METHOD
• It uses a trailer with one or more test
wheels being towed by a vehicle
and test wheels’ resistance is
measured by force transducers.
• In 1980s, Belgian Road Research
Centre(BBRC) designed a trailer to
assess rolling resistance.
• Apart from rolling resistance this also
takes surface texture into
considerations.
COAST-DOWN METHOD

• This test includes all significant

contributions to driving resistance.
• In this test vehicle is accelerated to
certain speed and let it roll freely in
neutral gear.
SURFACE ROUGHNESS AND
TEXTURE MODELLING
• International Roughness Index(IRI) and Mean Profile Depth(MPD) are widely
used in rolling resistance estimation.
• IRI aims at modelling roughness and unevenness while MPD aims at
measuring macro-texture.
• MPD is derived from Sandpatch test which was an early measure to
macrotexture in research of skid resistance.
• Nowadays Laser Profilometers are used to determine MPD.
 SANDPATCH TEST
• The test consists of spreading out a
known amount of sand on a road
surface with a puck, in a large
circle, and measuring the
diameter(ISO 10844-1994).
• The ratio between area covered
and amount of sand used gives the
Mean Texture Depth, a measure of
macrotexture.
LASER PROFILOMETER TEST
• Atleast 10 100mm laser profile
segments of the road section is
taken where MPD is to be found as
per ISO 13473-1 (ISO 1997).
 CONTACT MODELS
• In 1980 Yong et al. demonstrated a numerical method to approximate the
contact stress for individual areas using a computational algorithm requiring
only the 2D road profile geometry and tire inflation parameter as input.

• In 1993 Gall et al. developed a finite element model for the tire in the
contact area focusing on correct representation of the contact area
including the edge effects of the tire-soil contact, a friction law including
normal stress, and correct modelling techniques such as the use of
symmetry.
 TIRE MODEL
• In 1980s, William and Duck compared the sinusoidal radial load-deflection
cycling of a rolling tire with a non-rolling tire.
• An alternative to viscoelastic models was presented by Luchini et al.(in
1994), detailing a finite element strain based model using directional
incremental hysteresis to predict rolling resistance(for rubbers tires only).
• In 1999, Shida et al. proposed an algorithm to estimate the energy
dissipation from the hysteresis loss in a tire.
• Due to hysteresis losses, heat energy is generated which leads to higher tire
pressure and thus lower rolling resistance and vehicle fuel consumption.
• In 2006, Narsimharao et al. formed a three stage finite element model
consisting of a deformation model, a dissipation model and a thermal
model, to determine characteristics of tires with smooth and circumferential
groove tread patterns.

• From his studies he summarized the following:

a) Effective rolling radius is insensitive to parameter variations.
b) Rolling resistance is insensitive to rolling speed, convection loss and friction
but increases significantly with increasing normal load, tread profile and
tread material loss modulus.
 MAGIC FORMULA
• In 2012 Pacejka presented a widely used empirical formula which establishes
the relationship between the side force and the slip angle(α).

𝐹𝑦 = 𝐷𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝐵α − 𝐸 𝐵α − 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝐵α )
where B, C, D, E are parameters that are determined by fitting the relation to
data.
• A methodology using probabilistic characteristics of a vehicle and road to
model the interaction between them including rolling resistance is presented
by Vantsevich and Stuart (in 2008).
 CONCLUSION
• Magic Formula type of modelling is used for fast response in real-time vehicle
modeling, whereas the tendency in modelling the interaction between tire
and pavement surface is to use some kind of finite-element modelling.
• Today the challenge is to obtain realistic material models, model the tread
blocks, further develop the finite element models to include mata-physics,
include transient behavior and finally include the modelling of non-rigid
surfaces.
 REFERENCES
• Rolling Resistance Measurement and Model Development, Lasse G.
Andersen; Jesper K. Larsen; Elsje S. Fraser; Bjarne Schmidt; and Jeppe C. Dyre
https://ascelibrary.org/doi/10.1061/%28ASCE%29TE.1943-5436.0000673
• Yong, R. N., Boonsinsuk, P., and Fattah, E. A. (1980). “Tyre load capacity and
energy loss with respect to varying soil support stiffness.”J. Terramech., 17(3),
131–147.
• Gall, R., Tkacik, P., and Andrews, M. (1993). “On the incorporation of frictional
effects in the tire/ground contact area.” Tire Sci. Technol., 21(1), 2–22.
• Narasimha Rao, K., Krishna Kumar, R., and Bohara, P. (2006). “A sensitivity
analysis of design attributes and operating conditions on tyre operating
temperatures and rolling resistance using finite element analysis.” Proc. Inst.
Mech. Eng. Part D J. Autom. Eng., 220(5), 501–517.