Industrialization and Urbanization

Industrialization

• It refers to the process by which a society changes from pre-industrial

to industrial society.
• It depicts transition from animal power/ animate source of energy to
inanimate source of energy.
• It also means growth in industries and industrial productions.
• Lenski and Lenski (1987) defined industrialization as a process by
which technology based on inanimate sources of energy is
substituted for manual labour as the basis of production of goods.
Characteristics

• Agricultural production or dependency on land is replaced by

industrial and manufacturing sector.
• Standardized goods are produced with interchangeable parts.
• Emergence of a class of industrial labour force who do not own
anything but work for wages.
• Increase in population engaged in non agricultural activities.
• Growth of industrial cities
• Division of labour and specialization
Conditions necessary

• Values and belief favouring economic growth

• Mobility of productive resources: land, labour, capita, raw material
• Social order and economic stability
• Role of business corporation and urban centres
Impact of industrialization

• On Family, marriage, individual

- Structure changed joint to nuclear
- Nuclear family easy to move
- Change in interpersonal relationship
- Family changed from production to consumption unit
- Change in role of family: function of family for social protection, religious
function, recreation, educational, changed and discharged by other agencies
like clubs, religious community, educational institutions, state, welfare
agencies etc.
- Change in status of women
- Increase in generation gap due to technological education and skills
- Marriage: social contract between two individuals, no more a sacrament,
families are secondary
- Individualism
Impact of industrialization
• On social Stratification
- break down of caste system
- Emergence of classes
- Achievements override ascriptions
- Mobility of people challenged the hierarchy
- Inter-caste economic relation also has changed
• On economic life
- large scale production
- Commercial production
- Division of labour
- Capitalist class
- Rise in standard of living
Impact of industrialization
• On village community
- Migration
- Change in village economy
- Dominant caste gets affected
- New value system penetrates
- Tensions between caste groups
• Value orientation
- Individualism
- Humanism
- Materialism
- Rationalization
- secularization
- Modernity
- egalitarianism
Impact of industrialization

• Education
- Spread of technical education
- Mass education
- Technical skills and new technology education
• Related processes or processes facilitated by industrialization
- Modernization
- Urbanization
- Secularization
Urbanization
Important concepts

Urban, urbanism and urbanization

Urban?

According to Louis Wirth: urban is an administratively defined

unit of territory containing relatively large, dense and permanent
settlement of socially and culturally heterogeneous individual.
• There is no unanimity of definitions of what is urban
• Census of India considers a settlement as urban when it has
• More than 5000 population
• 400 per square kilometer population
• Not more than 15 percent working male population engaged in agriculture
• It means nonagricultural activities predominates.

Towns: For the Census of India 2011, the definition of urban area is as follows;
Category 1. All places with a municipality, corporation, cantonment board or
notified town area committee, etc.
Category 2. All other places which satisfied the following criteria:
i) A minimum population of 5,000;
ii) At least 75 per cent of the male main working population engaged in non-
agricultural pursuits; and
iii) A density of population of at least 400 persons per sq. km
• The first category of urban units is known as Statutory Towns. These
towns are notified under law by the concerned State/UT
Government and have local bodies like municipal corporations,
municipalities, municipal committees, etc., irrespective of their
demographic characteristics as reckoned on 31st December 2009.
Examples: Vadodara (M Corp.), Shimla (M Corp.) etc.
• The second category of Towns is known as Census Town.
• Urban Agglomeration (UA)
An urban agglomeration is a continuous urban spread constituting a
town and its adjoining outgrowths (OGs), or two or more physically
contiguous towns together with or without outgrowths of such
towns. An Urban Agglomeration must consist of at least a statutory
town and its total population (i.e. all the constituents put together)
should not be less than 20,000 as per the 2011 Census. In varying
local conditions, there were similar other combinations which have
been treated as urban agglomerations satisfying the basic condition
of contiguity. Examples: Greater Mumbai UA, Delhi UA, etc. We have
six classes of towns in India
• An Out Growth (OG) is a viable unit such as a village or a hamlet or an
enumeration block made up of such village or hamlet and clearly identifiable
in terms of its boundaries and location. Some of the examples are railway
colony, university campus, port area, military camps, etc., which have come
up near a statutory town outside its statutory limits but within the revenue
limits of a village or villages contiguous to the town. While determining the
outgrowth of a town, it has been ensured that it possesses the urban
features in terms of infrastructure and amenities such as pucca roads,
electricity, taps, drainage system for disposal of waste water etc. educational
institutions, post offices, medical facilities, banks etc. and physically
contiguous with the core town of the UA. Examples: Central Railway Colony
(OG), Triveni Nagar (N.E.C.S.W.) (OG), etc. Each such town together with its
outgrowth(s) is treated as an integrated urban area and is designated as an
‘urban agglomeration’.
• In the 2011 Census, 475 places with 981 OGs have been identified as
Urban Agglomerations
Cities Population (2011 Census)

Tier-1 100,000 and above

Tier-2 50,000 to 99,999

Tier-3 20,000 to 49,999

Tier-4 10,000 to 19,999

Tier-5 5,000 to 9,999

Tier-6 less than 5000

We have 53 million plus cities and 6 metro cities too

• In the 2011 Census, 475 places with 981 OGs have been identified as
Urban Agglomerations as against 384 UAs with 962 OGs in 2001
Census.
Type of Towns/UAs/OGs 2011 2001
Statutory Towns 4,041 3,799
Census Towns 3,894 1,362
Urban Agglomerations 475 384

Out Growths 981 962

• At the Census 2011 there are 7,935 towns in the country.

• The number of towns has increased by 2,774 since last Census.
• Many of these towns are part of UAs and the rest are independent towns.
• The total number of Urban Agglomerations/Towns, which constitutes the urban frame, is 6166 in the
country.
• The total urban population in the country as per Census 2011 is more than 377 million
constituting 31.16% of the total population.
• 264.9 million persons, constituting 70% of the total urban population, live in these Class I
UAs/Towns. The proportion has increased considerable over the last Census. In the
remaining classes of towns the growth has been nominal.
• Out of 468 UAs/Towns belonging to Class I category, 53 UAs/Towns each has a population
of one million or above each. Known as Million Plus UAs/Cities, these are the major urban
centres in the country. 160.7 million persons (or 42.6% of the urban population) live in
these Million Plus UAs/Cities.
• 18 new UAs/Towns have been added to this list since the last Census.
• there are three very large UAs with more than 10 million persons in the country, known as
Mega Cities. These are Greater Mumbai UA (18.4 million), Delhi UA (16.3 million) and
Kolkata UA (14.1 million). The largest UA in the country is Greater Mumbai UA followed by
Delhi UA. Kolkata UA which held the second rank in Census 2001 has been replaced by
Delhi UA.
• The growth in population in the Mega Cities has slowed down considerably during the last
decade. Greater Mumbai UA, which had witnessed 30.47% growth in population during
1991-2001 has recorded 12.05% during 2001-2011.
• Similarly Delhi UA (from 52.24% to 26.69% in 2001-2011) and
• Kolkata UA (from 19.60% to 6.87% in 2001-2011) have also slowed down considerably.
 URBANIZATION

• It is a process of the movement of population from rural agricultural to

urban manufacturing and service activities.
• It is a process of urban growth. This happens because of
- Migration (contributes the most)
- Natural growth
- Demarcation of rural area as urban
- If a city grows within rather from migration is called Pseudo
urbanization
Urbanization is an ongoing process
• Initially cities appeared
• Urbanism as a life style came up
• Total urbanization of the world population

These three high points reached are called urban revolution , Sjoberg , a urban
scholar spoke about these three urban revolutions
• 1st urban revolution : emergence of preindustrial cities
• 2nd urban revolution: Industrial city and urbanization
• 3rd one half of world population are urban
Pre Industrial cities: G. SJoberg
• Archeological evidences: Syria, Jordan, Iraq, Indus Valley Civilization in India,
China, Meso America
• B Gordon Childe Jerico first city in the world 8500 BC
• Civilization: domestication, development of writing, seed grain, stable area of
settlement
• Elements of civilization coupled with advances in agriculture, surplus production
are determining factor for urbanization.
• It is further added by development of handicraft, transport, market place,
taxation, distribution of food grain.
• Cities were small
• NO segregation between residential and production area
Industrial city
• Shift to machine production
• Production from individual house to factory
• Production of standardize goods with inter changeable parts
• Rise of class of factory worker
• Increase in population engaged in non-agricultural work
• Technological advances in transport, food storage
• It led to reorganization of family and kinship structure
• Haves and have nots
• Rapid growth of cities
• Large cities
• 1811 population of London was 864000 in 1891 it became 4232000 i.e. 6000
percent increase
• Movement of population from farm to factory and rural to urban
• Urbanism as a way of life: three characteristics of cities (size, density
and heterogeneity ) leads to change in behaviour pattern
• Before Louis Wirth, Durkheim spoke about division of labour and
specialization and what is the need for that.
• Individualistic, segregated cities
K. Davis: Factors of Urbanization

Inhibiting Epidemic, absence of

technological development,
enemy attacks
Factors
-Food production tech

-Transport technology

Facilitating -Development of writing it’s

use in trade

- S&T
G. Sjoberg: Pre industrial Society

Factors of urbanization
• Food Surplus
• Surplus Population
Louise Mumford

• City has a nuclease around which city develops

• Early cities developed as religious and political centers, economic
activity followed later on.
• There are two pattern of urban growth
• Process of urbanization
First emerged Trading town----- then there happened capital
accumulation----capital market---- migration---- guild---- putting out
system--- factory mode of production
Louise Mumford: Models of urbanization

Container eg. Fort

Models

and old cities

Magnet eg.
Religious centres
 Urbanism

• Urbanism is the patterns of behaviour, relationships and modes of thought that

characterize persons living in urban areas.
• So urbanization is sometimes refer to the process by which urban pattern of behaviour,
relationships and modes of thought spread and dominate until they become the
characteristic patterns of a national society and are shared even by people living far from
urban areas.
• Wirth, Louis (1938) ‘Urbanism as a Way of Life’, The American Journal of Sociology. The
University of Chicago Press, 44(1):1-24. (Online) Available:
http://www.jstor.org/stable/2768119 (Accessed on 05/06/2010)
• Louis Wirth saw city as a place where the traditional values will dissolve over time and
relations and institutions will be temporary in nature. Though he believed that there is
possibility for greater freedom, there is another possibility of societal disorganization too
as he found it in Chicago. So he put emphasis on urban planning to create humane urban
environment. But he believed city to be a very powerful force that would dominate
human life. But what we can see now is urbanization that is the growth and expansion of
some cities does not necessarily generate urbanism, a distinct way of life. The vice versa
may also happen- the urban way of life may encourage growth of the city and shape the
structure of the city.
Herbert Gans 1965: Studied Latin American in inner city and identified five
types of people there
• Cosmopolites (educated professionals)
• Migrants (unmarried bachelors looking for opportunities to settle)
• Ethnic Village (slums, ghettos, lead a community life in the neighbourhood)
• Deprived (poor, handicapped)
• Trapped (old people attached to their root)
Charl Glas: He popularized the concept industrial urbanization
• Metropolis consists of a legal city i.e. legally demarcated boundary, it means
the surrounding built up areas are linked to the main city by transportation
and economically integrated
• Metropolitan area develops because of massive expansion, sprawl and
annexation of surrounding areas
Metropolitan Service Area:
• It is bigger than metropolis, It serves between legal city and
hinterland. It is the entire area outside the legal city but coming
under direct influence of the main city. This area is identified on the
basis of following criteria
• Distance travelled for shopping
• CBD is there
• Circulation of newspapers
• Movement of perishable good
• Area coming under influence of development in metropolitan city
Conurbation
• Concept developed by Patrick Geddes
• Cities start growing and two or more cities merged and become one
• Jea Gottman, French Geographer called this trend as Megalopolis i.e. sprawl of
two or more cities during 1960s in France
These days this trend is called Super-conurbation e.g. Florida to New York
Accumenopolish
• Santino Doxiadis gave this concept
• Next stage of megalopolis i.e. entire country will be urbanized
Challenges:
• This prediction is challenged with the emerging massive telecommunication
revolution. Trend like work at home is posing a threat to migration
• Elvin Toffler in his book ‘Third Wave’ wrote about re-ruralized life
Gentrification
• Gentri means upper class people
• Urban recycling is an example of gentrification
• It means renovation or reconstruction of inner part of the city or the
old city
• This part of the city is resided by the rich people and they renovate
the place to decongest and make it livable by changing its
architecture and other infrastructures.
Pattern of Urbanization in India
Major schools of thought
in urban sociology
 classical sociological tradition
Karl Marx analyzed the city growth, observing the transformation of European society. He emphasized
that societal transformation primarily results from conflict between the capitalists- those who control
the process of economic production and the proletariat, those who supply the labour. His views were
based on his observation of industrial cities of the nineteenth century.
Ferdinand Tonnies regards city as gesellschaft in which social life is mechanized, which is
characterized by disunity, individualism, hostility, selfishness, indifferences etc. The characteristics of
gemeinschaft i.e. community explained by Tonnies are what Marx explained in primitive communism
and primitive mode of production. Gesellschaft is the character of modern cities. He saw a totally
different style of life and shift in the social life from group to individual.
Emile Durkheim (1857-1917) discussed mechanical solidarity and organic solidarity which correspond
to the character of village/ tribe and city respectively. Organic solidarity describes a social order based
on individual differences, complex division of labour, specializations, heterogeneity etc.
According to George Simmel, Social life in the city is the interplay of specialists. Simmel sees the
Metropolis as the seat of a money economy. Advanced division of labour requires a universal means
of exchange. And money performs this function in the economy. But the problem here is money
reduces everything to exchange value, thereby individuality, and specific qualities of anything are
being ignored. He also says that indifferent attitude among the city dwellers is very common in cities
so one feels very lonely and lost in the metropolitan crowd.
• Given the rapid growth of cities, their outgrowth, suburbanization and
replacement of village community in the present scenario these
theories are under rigorous criticism. So it is difficult to say how these
theories would have responded to the present unprecedented
urbanization. The rise of trade unionism, welfare state and collapse of
the Soviet Union questioned Marx’s very idea of urbanization.
• But Marx and Engels also believe that different economic systems would
produce a different city, with a different pattern of social interaction. But
Simmel’s idea is that all the metropolises would produce similar mental
processes. In contrast to this claim lies the argument of Weber who says
that different historical and cultural conditions would produce different
types of urban social psychological adaptation.
 Major schools of thought
In the twentieth century three major schools of thought emerged in
Urban Sociology. These were
• Chicago School of Urban Sociology
• Neo- Marxist School (Political Economy).
• Weberian
 Chicago School of Urban Theories
Robert Park’s theoretical contribution is known as Urban Ecology (a branch of Human
Ecology)
The city: suggestions for the investigations of human behavior in an urban environment

This School of thought says about processes like competition, dominance and succession
and consequential pattern of growth of city
• Competition
• Invasion
• Succession
• Centralization
• Decentralization
• Suburbanization: Residential Suburbs, Satellite suburbs
• Re-differentiation: (Moric Steim) City becomes monotonously homogenous and acquire
feature of mass society. E.g. Fashion when everyone accept, it loses its character, there is
standardization
• Claud Fisher challenged the idea of re-differentiation: Instead of mass culture there comes
subculture
• Expansion
For Burgess ‘expansion’ is more important than the increase in density
of urban population. According to him spatial expansion is ignored in
city planning, zoning and regional survey because for these purposes
the growth of the city is understood in terms of physical growth. In the
city plan location of parks, street layouts, traffic positions, community
centres etc. are all prepared keeping in mind control of the physical
development of the city in future. He explained expansion process
using concentric zone model
Ernest Burgess’ theoretical contribution
Concentric Zone Model
A. Light manufacturing

B. Wholesale
Chicago city:
 Sectorial Model: Homer Hyot
Latin American cities
Rio de Jenerio
Sao Paolo
Santiago
Multiple Nuclei Model: C. Harris and E. Ullman
COMPARISON
 Revival of Ecological Approach

The ecological approach confronted criticisms on various grounds towards 1940s.

• Hawley in 1950 wrote Human Ecology and reframed the ecological approach. He argued
that community structure is a system of functional interdependencies in a particular
territory. Dependencies result from the collective adaptation of a population to its
environment. It improves the chances of survival in its environment. In urban setting the
urban community is a system of functional interdependencies.
• According to Hawley, problems here in such inquiry is the understanding of the fact how a
population organizes itself in adapting to a constantly changing yet restricting
environment.
• The contemporary ecological approach emphasized on interdependence.
• Interdependence has two axes symbiotic and the commensalistic.
• The symbiotic interdependence arises from structural differentiation and integration of
specified roles and functions within a system. It varies with the degree of differentiation
and frequency of exchange among the specialised parts engaged in complementary
activities.
• Commensalistic interdependence is based on supplementary similarities and arises
whenever a specific system task is greater than one person can manage. Labour union,
neighbourhood clubs, and common interest groups represent modern social units which
have developed on the basis of commensalism. Both these form the basis of the social
system structure
 Criticism
• The principles to explain plants and animals are inadequate to explain urban
growth where human beings, thinking creatures with volition, are the unit of
analysis. It pays little attention to the role of choice, culture of the city and
community.

• The ecological approach sees the growth of city as a biological process where
there is competition and annexation of territory.

• Uniformity within the zones and their dependence on the concept of

unbridled competition and movement of population were also questioned.
These may not play a crucial role in a city’s growth.

• The Chicago sociologists were responding to one kind of city, namely the
North American city. So the significance of this approach was limited as it
neglected the historical and cross-cultural variations
 Criticism
• City’s spatial development may come as a result of globalization, change in the
mode of production or transportation and communication.
• The primary assumption of the Chicago School was that qualitative methodologies,
especially those used in naturalistic observation, were best suited for the study of
urban, social phenomena. This ethnographic closeness to the data brought great
richness and depth to the Chicago work. However, over-reliance on qualitative
methods, to the exclusion of reasonable quantitative measures, later became one
of the School’s greatest liabilities
• Allen Scott argued that the economic interests of powerful transnational
corporations- not the biological model of species competition over territory,
determine the pattern of urban growth (Macionis & Parrillo 2010: 182).
• The Chicago School started losing its importance by 1930s with rise of Talcott
Parsons Functionalist School. He relied more on survey oriented research than on
naturalistic observations
 Political Economy Approach/ Neo- Marxist Approach

The major exponents of this School of thought are Henry Lefebvre, David Harvey,
Manuel Castells, Francois Lamarche, Molotch and Pickvance.
 Assumptions of Political Economy Approach:

According to Macionis and Parrillo (2010) under the political economy approach there are
four principles for studying and analyzing cities and urban life.
• A city’s form and growth results not from “natural processes” but, rather from decisions
made by people and organizations that control wealth and other key resources. The
cities suffer or benefit from investment decisions made by financial and business
organizations.
• Urban forms and urban social arrangements reflect conflicts over distribution of
resources. They claim that urban life is an ongoing struggle between rich and poor,
powerful and powerless, management and labour, as well as the needs of vast
businesses and desires of local communities.
• The Government continues to play an important role in urban life. Local governments
allocate resources and mediate conflicts among various groups that are vying for
support. Decisions about zoning, tax incentives and spending priorities, for example, still
have much to do with a city’s (a) business locations, (b) housing and resident population
types and (c) public space activities. And significantly, because cities exist within a larger
society, the federal government, with its enormous resources and regulatory powers, is
a major influence on urban life, both directly, through its spending programs, and
indirectly, through its management of the prime interest rate for loans and its rules
governing investors.
• Urban growth patterns significantly result from economic restructuring. The economic
restructuring dramatically shaped cities, fostering growth or decline in metropolitan
regions throughout America and around the world.
Henry Lefebvre (1902- 1991)

He used Marxian analysis

• Economic categories like capital, labour, profit, wage, class exploitation etc.
were used by him to explain the unevenness in urban development. He
suggested that urban development was as much a product of the capitalist
economic system as was any manufactured good.

• Two circuits of Capitalism:

Two types of investment capital (industries and real estate)
Primary circuit (industries, manufacturing activities create more wealth to
invest more in manufacturing)
Second Circuit (another profit oriented economic activity i.e. investment in land
and real estate, It always leads to profit and is a means to acquire capital for
further investments). Profit seeking motive determines the stability, decline or
rejuvenation of various areas in the city.
• Space as a part of social organization:
We construct our surrounding to meet particular need and in turn our surroundings affect
our subsequent behaviour. There is always a constraint from the social structure. People
plan their daily life and actions within the constrains and opportunities. So the role of
planners and developers are important in the urbanization process.

• The role of government

• Abstract Vs Concrete Space
• Themed Environment: Disney world, Snow world
Manipulative structures designed to maximize the behavior control and eliminate direct
interactions found in traditional public space.
Lost reality, we buy visual themes.