Measurements & Instrumentations

Chapter 1. Measurement Methods: The Basic

 MEASUREMENTS
Measurements are made or measurement systems are set up for one or
more of the following functions:
• 1. To monitor processes and operations
Thermometers, barometers, anemometers, water, gas, electricity meters only indicate certain
quantities. Their readings do not perform any control functions in the ordinary sense.
These measurements are made for monitoring purposes only.
• 2. To control processes and operations
The thermostat in a refrigerator or geyser determines the temperature of the relevant
environment and accordingly switches OFF or ON the cooling or heating mechanism to
keep the temperature constant, i.e., to control the temperature. For example, an aircraft
needs controls from altimeters, gyroscopes, angle-of-attack sensors, thermocouples,
accelerometer, etc.
• 3. To Measurements are also made to
a. test the validity of predictions from theories,
b. build empirical models, i.e., relationships between parameters and quantities associated
with a problem.
 Instrumentation
• Measurements are made with the help of instruments. Instruments, in general, consist of
a few elements. But before we go into the contents of a generalised instrument, let us
define what we mean by an instrument.

• An instrument can be defined as a device or a system which is designed in such a way

that it maintains a functional relation hip between a prescribed property of a substance
and a physical variable, and communicate thi relationship to a human observer by some
ways and means. For example, a mercury-in-gl thermometer is an instrument because it
maintains a linear relationship between thermal expansion of mercury (prescribed
property) and temperature (physical variable) and communicates this relationship to us
through a graduated scale.

• A generalised instrument can be schematically represented as shown in Fig. 1.1. It

consists

i. A sensor

ii. A transducer (optional signal conditioner), and

iii. A display.
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 Problem 1.33
KNOWN: Water at 20oC
Q =f(C,A,dp,)
C = 0.75; D = 1 m
2 < Q < 10 cmm

FIND: Expected calibration curve

SOLUTION
Part of a test matrix is to specify the range of the independent
variable and to anticipate the range resulting in the
dependent variable. In this case, the pressure drop will be
measured so that it is the dependent variable during a
static calibration. To anticipate the output range of the
calibration then:
Rearranging the known relation, P1.33
dp = (Q/CA)2/2
For = 998 kg/m3 (Appendix C), and A = D2/4, we find: 45
40
Q (cmm) dp (N/m2 35

dp (N/m-m)
30
25
2 1.6 20
15
5 10 10
5
10 40 0
This is plotted below. It is clear that K will not be a constant as 0 5 10 15
K = f(Q). Q (cmm)
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 Problem1.37
SOLUTION
Independent variables
micrometer setting (i.e. the applied displacement)
Controlled variable
power supply input
Dependent variable
output voltage measured
Extraneous variables
operator set-up, zeroing of system, and reading of micrometer
ability to set control variables

COMMENT
If you try this you will find that the power supply excitation voltage can have a significant
influence on the results. The ability to provide the exact voltage on replication is
important in obtaining consistent results in many transducers. Even if you use a
regulated laboratory variable power supply, this effect can be seen in your data variation
on replication as a random variation. If you use an unregulated source, be prepared to
trace these effects as they change from hour to hour or from day to day.

Many LVDT units allow for use of dc power, which is then transformed to ac form before
being applied to the coil. It is easiest to see the effect of power setting on the results
when using this type of transducer.