10/21/2019 1 Dr.M.Nirupama Bhat, Dept of CSE, VFSTRU

10/21/2019 Dr.M.
Nirupama Bhat, Dept of CSE, VFSTRU 1

Learning Outcomes
 To make the students
 understand about the concept of information security and

its importance in today’s world
 learn about classical Encryption standard
 understand the working of rotor machines
 learn about Stegnography and various methods in

Stegnography
10/21/2019 Dr.M.Nirupama Bhat, Dept of CSE, VFSTRU 2

Syllabus
 Introduction
 Security attacks
 Security services
 Security mechanisms
 A Model for Network Security
 Classical Encryption Techniques – Symmetric Cipher Model
 Substitution Techniques
 Transposition Techniques
 Rotor Machines
 Steganography

Introduction
 Computer Security - generic name for the collection of
tools designed to protect data and to thwart hackers
 Network Security - measures to protect data during
their transmission
 Internet Security - measures to protect data during
their transmission over a collection of interconnected
networks

Services, Mechanisms, Attacks
 Need systematic way to define requirements
 Consider three aspects of information security:
 Security attack
 Security mechanism
 Security service

Security Attack
 Any action that compromises the security of
information owned by an organization
 Information security is about how to prevent attacks,
or failing that, to detect attacks on information-based
systems
 Have a wide range of attacks
 Can focus of generic types of attacks
 Note: often threat & attack mean same

Classification of Security Attacks
 Passive attacks - eavesdropping on, or
monitoring of, transmissions to:
 obtain message contents, or
 monitor traffic flows
 Active attacks – modification of data stream to:
 masquerade of one entity as some other
 replay previous messages
 modify messages in transit
 denial of service

Passive and Active Attacks

Passive Attacks
Obtain message
contents
Monitor Traffic flows

Active Attacks
Masquerade Replay
Modification Denial of Service

Security Mechanism
 A mechanism that is designed to detect, prevent, or
recover from a security attack
 No single mechanism that will support all functions
required
 However one particular element underlies many of the
security mechanisms in use: cryptographic
techniques
 Hence our focus on this area

 Specific security mechanisms
Security Mechanisms (X.800)
Encipherment

 digital signatures
 access controls
 data integrity
 authentication exchange
 traffic padding
 routing control
 notarization
 Pervasive security mechanisms
 Trusted functionality
 security labels
 event detection
 security audit trails
 security recovery
Security Mechanisms

Security Service
 It is something that enhances the security of the data
processing systems and the information transfers of an
organization
 Intended to counter security attacks
 Make use of one or more security mechanisms to
provide the service
 Replicate functions normally associated with physical
documents
 Eg. have signatures, dates; need protection from disclosure,
tampering, or destruction; be notarized or witnessed; be
recorded or licensed

Security Services
 X.800 defines it as: a service provided by a protocol
layer of communicating open systems, which ensures
adequate security of the systems or of data transfers
 RFC 2828 defines it as: a processing or communication
service provided by a system to give a specific kind of
protection to system resources
 X.800 defines it in 5 major categories

Security Services (X.800)
 Authentication - assurance that the communicating
entity is the one claimed
 Access Control - prevention of the unauthorized use of
a resource
 Data Confidentiality –protection of data from
unauthorized disclosure
 Data Integrity - assurance that data received is as sent
by an authorized entity
 Non-Repudiation - protection against denial by one of
the parties in a communication

Model for Network Security

Model for Network Security
 This model can:
 Design a suitable algorithm for the security
transformation
 Generate the secret information (keys) used by the
algorithm
 Develop methods to distribute and share the secret
information
 Specify a protocol enabling the principals to use the
transformation and secret information for a security
service

Model for Network Access
Security

Model for Network Access
Security
 Using this model requires us to:
 select appropriate gatekeeper functions to identify users
 implement security controls to ensure only authorised
users access designated information or resources
 Trusted computer systems can be used to implement
this model

Classical encryption techniques
Goals:
 To introduce basic concepts & terminology of
encryption
 To prepare students for studying modern cryptography

Basic terminology
 Plaintext: original message to be encrypted
 Ciphertext: the encrypted message
 Enciphering or encryption: the process of
converting plaintext into ciphertext
 Encryption algorithm: performs encryption
 Two inputs: a plaintext and a secret key

Symmetric Cipher Model

 Deciphering or decryption: recovering plaintext
from ciphertext
 Decryption algorithm: performs decryption
 Two inputs: ciphertext and secret key
 Secret key: same key used for encryption and
decryption
 Also referred to as a symmetric key

 Cipher or cryptographic system : a scheme for
encryption and decryption
 Cryptography: science of studying ciphers
 Cryptanalysis: science of studying attacks against
cryptographic systems
 Cryptology: cryptography + cryptanalysis

Ciphers
 Symmetric cipher: same key used for encryption and
decryption
 Block cipher: encrypts a block of plaintext at a time
(typically 64 or 128 bits)
 Stream cipher: encrypts data one bit or one byte at a
time
 Asymmetric cipher: different keys used for encryption
and decryption

Symmetric Encryption
 Also named as conventional / secret-key / single-key
 Sender and recipient share a common key
 All classical encryption algorithms are symmetric
 The only type of ciphers prior to the invention of
asymmetric-key ciphers in 1970’s
 By far most widely used

Symmetric Encryption
 Mathematically:
Y = EK(X) or Y = E(K, X)
X = DK(Y) or X = D(K, Y)
 X = plaintext
 Y = ciphertext
 K = secret key
 E = encryption algorithm
 D = decryption algorithm
 Both E and D are known to public

Cryptanalysis
 Objective: to recover the plaintext of a ciphertext
or, more typically, to recover the secret key.
 Two general approaches:
 brute-force attack
 non-brute-force attack (cryptanalytic attack)

Brute-Force Attack
 Try every key to decipher the ciphertext.
 On average, need to try half of all possible keys
 Time needed proportional to size of key space
Key Size (bits) Number of Alternative Time required at 1 Time required at 106
Keys decryption/µs decryptions/µs
32 232 = 4.3  109 231 µs = 35.8 minutes 2.15 milliseconds
56 256 = 7.2  1016 255 µs = 1142 years 10.01 hours
128 2128 = 3.4  1038 2127 µs = 5.4  1024 years 5.4  1018 years
168 2168 = 3.7  1050 2167 µs = 5.9  1036 years 5.9  1030 years
26 characters 26! = 4  1026 2  1026 µs = 6.4  1012 years 6.4  106 years
(permutation)

Cryptanalytic Attacks
 May be classified by how much information

needed by the attacker:
 Ciphertext-only attack
 Known-plaintext attack
 Chosen-plaintext attack
 Chosen-ciphertext attack

Classical Ciphers
 Plaintext is viewed as a sequence of elements (e.g., bits
or characters)
 Substitution cipher: replacing each element of the
plaintext with another element.
 Transposition (or permutation) cipher: rearranging
the order of the elements of the plaintext.
 Product cipher: using multiple stages of substitutions
and transpositions

Caesar Cipher
 Earliest known substitution cipher
 Invented by Julius Caesar
 Each letter is replaced by the letter three positions
further down the alphabet.
• Plain: a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z
Cipher: D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z
ABC
 Example: ohio state  RKLR VWDWH

Contd...
 Mathematically, map letters to numbers:
a, b, c, ..., x, y, z
0, 1, 2, ..., 23, 24, 25
 Then the general Caesar cipher is:
c = EK(p) = (p + k) mod 26
p = DK(c) = (c – k) mod 26
 Can be generalized with any alphabet.

Cryptanalysis of Caesar Cipher
 Key space: {0, 1, ..., 25}
 Vulnerable to brute-force attacks.
 E.g., break ciphertext "UNOU YZGZK“

Monoalphabetic Substitution
Cipher
 Shuffle the letters and map each plaintext letter to a
different random ciphertext letter:
Plain letters: abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz

Cipher letters:
DKVQFIBJWPESCXHTMYAUOLRGZN
Plaintext: ifwewishtoreplaceletters
Ciphertext: WIRFRWAJUHYFTSDVFSFUUFYA

Monoalphabetic Cipher
Security
 Now we have a total of 26! = 4 x 1026 keys.

 With so many keys, it is secure against brute-force
attacks.
 But not secure against some cryptanalytic attacks.

Language Statistics and
Cryptanalysis
 Letters are not equally frequently used.
 In English, E is by far the most common letter,
followed by T, R, N, I, O, A, S.
 Other letters like Z, J, K, Q, X are fairly rare.
 There are tables of single, double & triple letter
frequencies for various languages

English Letter Frequencies

Statistics for double & triple
letters
 In decreasing order of frequency
 Double letters:
th he an in er re es on, …
 Triple letters:
the and ent ion tio for nde, …

Example Cryptanalysis
 Given ciphertext:
 UZQSOVUOHXMOPVGPOZPEVSGZWSZOPFPESXUDBMETSXA
IZ
 VUEPHZHMDZSHZOWSFPAPPDTSVPQUZWYMXUZUHSX
 EPYEPOPDZSZUFPOMBZWPFUPZHMDJUDTMOHMQ
 Count relative letter frequencies (see next page)
 Guess {P, Z} = {e, t}
 Of double letters, ZW has highest frequency, so guess ZW = th
and hence ZWP = the
 Proceeding with trial and error finally get:
 it was disclosed yesterday that several informal but
 direct contacts have been made with political
 representatives of the viet cong in moscow

Letter frequencies in ciphertext
P 13.33 H 5.83 F 3.33 B 1.67 C 0.00
Z 11.67 D 5.00 W 3.33 G 1.67 K 0.00
S 8.33 E 5.00 Q 2.50 Y 1.67 L 0.00
U 8.33 V 4.17 T 2.50 I 0.83 N 0.00
O 7.50 X 4.17 A 1.67 J 0.83 R 0.00
M 6.67

Types of attacks
 Ciphertext-only attack
 Known-plaintext attack
 Chosen-plaintext attack
 Chosen-ciphertext attack

Playfair Cipher
 Not even the large number of keys in a
monoalphabetic cipher provides security.
 One approach to improving security is to encrypt
multiple letters at a time.
 The Playfair Cipher is the best known such
cipher.
 Invented by Charles Wheatstone in 1854, but
named after his friend Baron Playfair.

Playfair Key Matrix
 Use a 5 x 5 matrix.
 Fill in letters of the key (w/o duplicates).
 Fill the rest of matrix with other letters.
 E.g., key = MONARCHY.
M O N A R
C H Y B D
E F G I/J K
L P Q S T
U V W X Z

Encrypting and Decrypting
Plaintext is encrypted two letters at a time.
1. If a pair is a repeated letter, insert filler like 'X’.
2. If both letters fall in the same row, replace each
with the letter to its right (circularly).
3. If both letters fall in the same column, replace
each with the the letter below it (circularly).
4. Otherwise, each letter is replaced by the letter in
the same row but in the column of the other letter
of the pair.

Videos
 Play Fair Cipher

Security of Playfair Cipher
 Equivalent to a monoalphabetic cipher with an
alphabet of 26 x 26 = 676 characters.
 Security is much improved over the simple
monoalphabetic cipher.
 Once thought to be unbreakable.
 Actually, it can be broken, because it still leaves
some structure of plaintext intact.

Polyalphabetic Substitution Ciphers
 A sequence of monoalphabetic ciphers (M1, M2,
M3, ..., Mk) is used in turn to encrypt letters.
 A key determines which sequence of ciphers to
use.
 Each plaintext letter has multiple corresponding
ciphertext letters.

Vigenère Cipher
 Simplest polyalphabetic substitution cipher
 Consider the set of all Caesar ciphers:
{ Ca, Cb, Cc, ..., Cz }
 Key: e.g. security
 Encrypt each letter using Cs, Ce, Cc, Cu, Cr, Ci, Ct,
Cy in turn.
 Repeat from start after Cy.
 Decryption simply works in reverse.

Example of Vigenère Cipher
 Keyword: deceptive
key: deceptivedeceptivedeceptive
plaintext: wearediscoveredsaveyourself
ciphertext: ZICVTWQNGRZGVTWAVZHCQYGLMGJ

Videos
 Vigener Cipher

Security of Vigenère Ciphers
 There are multiple ciphertext letters corresponding to
each plaintext letter.
 So, letter frequencies are obscured but not totally lost.
 To break Vigenere cipher:
1. Try to guess the key length. How?
2. If key length is N, the cipher consists of N Caesar
ciphers. Plaintext letters at positions k, N+k, 2N+k,
3N+k, etc., are encoded by the same cipher.
3. Attack each individual cipher as before.

Key Length
 Plaintext words separated by multiples of the key
length are encoded in the same way.
 In our example, if plaintext = “…thexxxxxxthe…”
then “the” will be encrypted to the same
ciphertext words.
 check the ciphertext for repeated patterns.
 E.g. repeated “VTW” in the previous example
suggests a key length of 3 or 9:
 ciphertext:
ZICVTWQNGRZGVTWAVZHCQYGLMGJ

Transposition Ciphers
 Also called permutation ciphers.
 Shuffle the plaintext, without altering the actual letters
used.
 Example:
 Row Transposition Ciphers
 Rail Fence Cipher

Row Transposition Ciphers
 Plaintext is written row by row in a rectangle.
 Ciphertext: write out the columns in an order specified

by a key.
Key: 3 4 2 1 5 6 7 a t t a c k p
o s t p o n e
Plaintext:
d u n t i l t
wo a mx y z
Ciphertext: TTNAAPTMTSUOAODWCOIXKNLYPETZ

Videos
 Transposition Ciphers

Product Ciphers
 Uses a sequence of substitutions and transpositions
 Harder to break than just substitutions or
transpositions
 This is a bridge from classical to modern ciphers.

Rotor Machines
 Before modern ciphers, rotor machines were most
common complex ciphers in use.
 Used a series of rotating cylinders.
 Implemented a polyalphabetic substitution cipher
of period K.
 With 3 cylinders, K = 263 =17,576.
 With 5 cylinders, K = 265 =12 x 106.

Steganography
 Hide a message in another message.
 E.g., hide your plaintext in a graphic image
 Advantage: hiding existence of messages
 Drawback: high overhead

Techniques in Stegnography
Character Marking
Invisible Ink
Type Writer Correction Ribbon
Pin Punctures

10/21/2019 1 Dr.M.Nirupama Bhat, Dept of CSE, VFSTRU

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10/21/2019 Dr.M.

Nirupama Bhat, Dept of CSE, VFSTRU 1

 understand about the concept of information security and

 understand the working of rotor machines

 learn about Stegnography and various methods in

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Monitor Traffic flows

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Modification Denial of Service

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56 256 = 7.2  1016 255 µs = 1142 years 10.01 hours

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 May be classified by how much information

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Plain letters: abcdefghijklmnopqrstuvwxyz

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 Now we have a total of 26! = 4 x 1026 keys.

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