Techniques in field

investigation
 Syllabus content
• Introduction to field investigation
• Safety rules in field investigation
• Sampling techniques and sampling equipment
• The preservation and mounting techniques in plants
• The preservation and mounting techniques in
animals
 CHAPTER 1
Techniques in field
investigation

“Science learning experiences occur in the classroom, in the laboratory, and

in the field. In these experiences, students discover facts, concepts, and laws
of science for themselves, much as scientists do in their professional lives.
Experiences that extend from the classroom into the field allow students to
explore, observe, and investigate things in the natural world that cannot be
brought into the classroom learning experience.”
Chris Castillo-Comer, Director of Science
Texas Education Agency, 2002
 1.1 Introduction
• Field trips are an interactive and engaging
method of learning in environments outside the
classroom.

• These rules are an excellent guideline for

maintaining a safe atmosphere.
 Field Investigation
• Definition: An investigation carried out in the field.

• Provide students with first-hand experience by

o allowing them to explore, observe, and investigate
natural-world phenomena that cannot be brought
into the classroom learning environment.

• Direct observation in a field setting can provide a

stimulating and rewarding experience for the students
and the lecturer.

• However, field experiences require materials and

procedures for students to experience various aspects
of the natural world.
• Safety guidelines must be maintained to ensure a
productive experience for all participants.

• The importance of field investigations to the

curriculum:
o essential for the application of key concepts.
o In some instances, significant gains in learning
may be achieved only through field experiences.
o to discover the applications of science in
technology and research.

• Example: industries, governmental agencies,

arboretums, zoos, museums, and natural areas
• Field investigations should:
o contribute to the understanding of science
concepts in the natural world,
o allow students to experience what real scientists
do,
o provide an opportunity to collect real data,
o model real applications of science,
o connect science disciplines to future careers.

• Experiences gained during a field investigation can

motivate students to learn more about what they
have observed.
 1.2 The Safety Rules
“School districts should develop and implement
safety procedures for laboratory investigations and
field trips. Teachers should learn safe procedures
for laboratory activities and field trips and follow
them as a matter of policy.”
Liability of Teachers for Laboratory Safety and Field
Trips,
National Science Teachers Association,1985
 Main Questions
1. What safety precautions are required?
o first-aid kits
o given additional safety training before the trip
o cellular phone available for making
emergency calls
o copies of the permission and medical forms
with the lecturer.

2. How long will this trip take?

o Can time be used efficiently?
o Job scope and time management
Safety rules in Field Trip
1. Safety Waivers and Permission Slips
o Most school programs have template safety
waivers or permission slips.
o Children under 18 must have a parent or
guardian sign a legal permission slip stating that
they accept the child's participation in the field
trip.
o Students 18 and older must sign a waiver stating
they accept full responsibility for their actions
and legal implications of their participation in the
field trip.
2. Attendance Checklist
o Make an attendance list of each participant.
o Helpful:
• to check at periods throughout the trip, specifically
getting on or off transportation and in the middle of
the trip.

3. Clothing
• Appropriate attire:
o Most field trip locations require long pants and
sleeves and close-toed shoes.
o On any circumstances eg: rain - bring umbrellas,
raincoats
4. Chaperones
o Chaperones help maintain safety of the group and
control the large group
o The chaperones should be lecturers or staff who all
participants will respect and follow.

5. Bring a First Aid Kit

• basic first-aid kit
o A complete kit includes: bandages, gauze,
antiseptic, tape, scissors and home-made splint
material.
• While you can't prevent an accident, having a first-aid
kit in each group can limit the potential for disaster in an
emergency.
6. Groups
• Participants can be divided into groups of 4 – 10
people.

7. Rules
o Before embarking on the trip, copies of the rules
and regulations are provided for each
participant.

8. Stranger Danger
• Address to participants that they are only to talk to
field trip chaperones or event staff in marked
uniforms.
1.3 The Sampling
Techniques
 Sample is a set of elements taken from a larger
population according to certain rules.

 The act of collecting a portion of material for

analytical purposes that accurately represents the
material being sampled with respect to stated
objectives.

 Sampling is a scientist’s way of collecting information,

and the majority of sampling is undertaken to answer
specific questions.
 Sampling techniques?
 A sampling technique is the method used to collect
information from a single sampling unit. Therefore the
focus of a sampling technique is on the equipment
and/or the way the count is accomplished.

Sampling programs?
 A sampling program is the procedure for employing
the sampling technique to obtain a sample and
make an estimate. Sampling programs direct how a
sample is to be taken, including sampling unit size,
number of sample units, spatial pattern of obtaining
sampling units, and timing of samples.
 Why
Sampling?

Get information about large populations

 Less costs
 Less field time
 More accuracy i.e. Can Do A Better
Job of Data Collection
 When it’s impossible to study the whole
population
Which Method to Use?
• It is virtually impossible to identify and count every
organism in a habitat.
• Only small sections of the habitat are usually
studied in detail. These can be the representative
for the whole area.
• There are four basic sampling techniques:

- Quadrats
- Point frames
- Line transect
- Belt transect
Quadrats
 A quadrat is a sampling unit consist of a
square frame, the most frequently used
size being 1m².

 often designed as a sturdily built

wooden frame, so it can be folded to
make it more compact for storage and
transport.

 It is placed on the ground and the

species present within the frame are
identified and their abundance
recorded.

 If the species are small and/or densely

packed, one or more of the smaller
squares within the frame may be used
rather than the quadrat as a whole.

 Sampling with a quadrat may be

random or systematic.
• Random sampling can be as simple as throwing a
quadrat randomly and counting the species within
that area.

• However, this is usually unsatisfactory because a

personal element inevitably enter into the throwing
and it is not truly random(personal bias).

• A better method of random sampling is to map the

area and then lay a numbered grid over the map.

• Using random numbers generated on a computer or

certains calculators, a series of coordinates can be
obtained.

• The quadrat is placed at the intersection of each pair

of coordinates and the species within it recorded.
• Systematic sampling is when samples are
taken at fixed intervals, usually along a line.
• Normally involves doing transects where a
sampling line is set up across areas where
there are clear environmental gradient.
• Example; use a transect to show the
changes of plant species as you moved from
grassland into woodland
• Or to investigate the effect on species
composition of pollutant radiating out from a
particular source

• In these circumstances a rectangular area

of ground may be marked out by boundary
stakes which are connected by rope. This is
known as a permanent quadrat.
Point frames
• A point frame, or point quadrat,
consists of vertical legs across
which is fixed a horizontal bar with
small holes along it.

• A long metal pin, resembling a

knitting needle, is placed in each
of the holes in turn.

• Each time the pin touches a

species, it is recorded.

• The point frame is especially

useful where there is dense
vegetation as it can sample at
many different levels.
TRANSECT
Line Transect
• A line transect can made using a
string or tape is stretched out along
the ground in a straight line.

• so that systematic sampling of an area

can be carried out.

• A record is made of the organisms

touching or covering the line all along
its length, or at regular intervals.

• This technique is particularly useful

where there is a transition of flora
and/or fauna across an area, down a
seashore for example.
 The white line is the LINE, species are recorded at set
intervals along the line, just where they touch it. This
gives a QUICK idea of distribution.

• If there is any appreciable height change along the

transect, it is advisable to construct a profile of the
transect to indicate the changes in level.

• This is especially important where vertical height is a major

factor in determining the distribution of species.
• On a seashore, for example, the height above
the sea affects the duration of time any point
is submerged by the tide..

• This has a considerable bearing on the

species that can survive at that level.

• So, the distribution of species is related to the

vertical height on the shore rather than the
horizontal distance along it. This form of
transect is called a profile transect.
 Belt Transect Method
• This is similar to the line transect method but gives
information on abundance as well as presence, or
absence of species. It may be considered as a
widening of the line transect to form a continuous
belt, or series of quadrats.
 Belt Transect
• A belt transect is a strip, usually a metre wide, marked by
putting a second line transect parallel to the other.
• The species between the lines are carefully recorded,
working a metre at a time.
• Another method is to use a frame quadrat in conjuction
with a single line transect.
• In this case, the quadrat is laid down alongside the line
transect and the species within it recorded.
• It is then moved its own length along the line and the
process repeated.
• This gives a record of species in a continuous belt, but
the quadrat may also be used at regular intervals, e.g.
every 5 m, along the line (a ladder transect).
 Quadrats are sampled all the way down the
transect line, at each marked point on the line, or
at some other predetermined interval (or even
randomly) if time is short.
 It is important that the same person should do the
estimations of cover in each quadrat, because
the estimation is likely to vary from person to
person.
1
m

6
m

11
m

16
m

24m
50m
28m 29m 30m
 ESTIMATING THE SIZE OF A POPULATION OF A PLANT
SPECIES

Plants are sessile, they do not move around. They can be

sampled using a quadrat.

Our aim is to estimate the size of the population of a plant

species.

You will need to:

Clearly identify the species of plant you are investigating.

Determine the area in which the population is to be sampled

using tape measures.

Use a suitable sized quadrat to sample the plants

 Estimating a plant population
1. Estimating Density

• Density is the mean number of individuals (n) per

unit area (a).
• Density is valuable for comparing given species
in different habitats.
 2. Estimating percentage frequency
• Frequency is the number of quadrats in which a
species occurs, expressed as a percentage.

• Frequency is rapidly assessed, and is a useful means

of comparing two similar plant communities with
same quadrat size.
 3. Estimating percentage cover
• Cover is the percentage of the ground covered by
a species within the area sampled.

• Cover is a valuable way of considering the relative

contribution of the different species in a given
community or in different communities.
 Soil Sampling
Techniques
• Technique used must be one that maintains the soil
sample in its natural condition.
• The results can illustrate the actual characteristics
of the soil.
• Methods usually used for soil sampling include:

a) Soil bore

- to obtained soil samples from

various depths.

- suitable for the study of the

characteristics of different layers
of soil profile.
 b) Corer

- to isolate a soil sample by pulling out the

piston from its cylinder.
- large portion of the natural structure of
the soil is maintained in its original state.
 c) Scoop

- to obtain soil samples from different depths.

- difficult and may destroy the soil that are
being studied.
 Soil Analysis
1. Mechanical analysis to determine the
texture of a soil.

2. Content of organic matter.

3. Analysis of water content.

4. Analysis to determine the percentage of

air in soil.
 Analysis of the soil texture
Clay Soil Loam Sandy Soil

Particle size is less than 0.002 mm Particle size from 0.06 mm to 2.0
(2 µm) mm

Small air spaces between Large air spaces between particles;

particles; poor aeration good aeration

Poor drainage; soil easily Good drainage; soil not compacted

The properties of loam soils are
compacted
intermediate between those of clay
and sandy soils
Good water retention Poor water retention
(water logging possible) (no water logging)

A wet soil; evaporation of water Less water evaporation, therefore

causes it to be cold warmer

Particles attract many mineral ions; Minerals are easily leached so

nutrient content is high mineral content is low

Particles aggregate together to Particles remain separate; the soil

form clods; the soil is heavy and is light and easy to work
difficult to work
 Analysis of Organic Matter Content
• These include parts of dead plants and animals in
various stages decay.
• These included 3 groups:
1. Non-nitrogenous compounds – sugar ,starch,
cellulose, lignin (C,H,O)
2. Nitrogenous compounds – most are proteins
3. Inorganic substances or minerals – P, Ca, Mg, K,
Si, S, Al, Fe (present in various compounds).
• Humus – the dark-coloured amorphous colloidal
material that constitutes the organic component of
soil. It is formed by the decomposition of plant and
animal remains and excrement and has a complex
and variable chemical composition.
• Humus is an important factor in the aeration, water
retention potential and granulation of soil.
 Analysis of the percentage of air in soil
• Aeration of soil is absolutely essential for the
absorption of water by the roots.

• Absorption is better in well aerated soils

because O2 is needed for respiration of
roots.

• O2 deficiency retards the growth and

development of fresh roots and disturbs their
metabolic activity.
 Analysis of soil pH
• Soil pH is an important factor that influences
the types of organisms living in the soil in a
particular area.

• The methods that can be used to determine

soil pH include:
1. Using a pH meter
2. Using universal indicator
3. Using pH paper
 One of the most useful references for proper plant
identification is a collection of dry plant specimens.

Collection of dry specimens are usually found in

educational or research institutions (herbaria), but can
also prove useful on an individual basis for a farm or
region

 Latin herbārius, one skilled in herbs/vegetation

 A collection of dried plants mounted, labeled, and

systematically arranged for use in scientific study.

 A place or institution where such a collection is kept.

• Very helpful way of learning to know plants
• Can secure plant specimens when they are in flower
and identify them later.
• Can check with an expert if you are not sure if
identification.
• The pressed specimen serves as a useful reference to
help identify other specimens found or received later
for identification.
• A collection of plant specimens provides a record of
plant species of an area.
 Equipment needed for collecting
and pressing plants
1.Digging tool to collect root samples
or dig entire specimen plant if
desired.
2.Pocket knife or pruning shears to clip
off desired portion of plant.
3.Plastic bags of assorted sizes to keep
plants from drying out until they can
be pressed.
4.Sheets of folded newspaper to place
plants in for pressing.
5.Cardboard and blotter sheets for
insertion between specimens in plant
press.
6. A plant press constructed of two
sheets of plywood or a lattice
design of wood strips nailed
together and bound with straps or a
rope to apply pressure.

7. A field notebook to take notes

about the plant specimen. Include
data collected, location where
collected, notes on size of plant if
entire plant is not collected, type of
root, flower color, whether plant has
milky juice, odor, or any other
characteristics that will be lost
when the plant is collected.

8. Index cards to label mount

9. A camera.
The collected plant should be fresh and
dry.

Dirty samples should be cleaned.

Usually the whole plant should be

collected. Collect a plant with flower or
fruit parts present if possible. Collect roots of
plant or if roots are too large, note carefully
type of root system.

Information on samples such as date, soil

condition and location should be noted.
o Locate and collect a range of flower
color, type, etc. If possible, arrange to
collect plants in vegetative as well as
flowering stages.

o If plant is dioecious, collect both male

and female plants, if possible.

o If plant has basal leaves which are

different from leaves on stem, collect
samples of these -- or collect whole
plant.
• Plant that very few in quantity and rare
need approval letter for collected.
Obtain permission before you collect
plants on private property, State Parks,
etc.

• Collection done in dense area.

• Collection must be avoided at the:

- roadside
- construction area
- contaminated area
Apparatus needed for pressing are plant press,
rope, corrugated boards, papers and
herbarium papers.

Pressing process involves the arrangement of

papers layer by layer. The sizes of specimen
must be within the board sizes (33 cm x 50 cm).

The specimen should be in good condition and

the leaves should not overlap each other.
Arrange the plant so the floral parts and other
identifying characters are well displayed.

The layers of specimens are press between two

boards and wood pressers. The rope is used to
tighten the press wood.
• Putting the plant
into the press

• Open up your press so that it is in two halves, with

the unfolded newspaper on the bottom half.

• Place your fresh cutting onto the newspaper, and

then fold the newspaper so that it covers the plant.
Make sure to put the plant in the center area of the
newspaper.
• Putting the press together with the
plant inside

• Place the cardboard and then the

wood top halves over the folded
newspaper.

• Layer the cardboard and the wood on

top and bottom.

• Final step in putting the press together

• After the press has been put together-

place the rope around the entire
press, push it all the way together (it's
best to stand on it so it's closed tightly),
and tie the rope tightly.
• Two techniques of drying
o using solar
o using oven where the temperature can be
controlled.

• Drying using solar

-Leave the specimen in the press wood
under the sun light.
-Change the layer of papers the day
after.
-Repeat the technique until the
specimens are truly dry. This process
would take about a week.
• Drying using oven
- More appropriate technique and faster
- The temperature was controlled at 45°C to
60°C that would take 3 to 7 days.
- The layers of papers should be changed when
necessary.

• Succulent plants may need blotter change every day. If

blotter paper is not available, you can use additional
folded sheets of newspaper between specimen sheets.
• The dry specimens are
ready to be mounted onto
herbarium paper.
• The standard herbarium
paper size is 16½”cm x
10½”cm.
• The purpose is for storage
and therefore it’s
important to ensure those
specimens are proper
mounted on the paper.
• The specimens are fixed on
the paper using thread,
cellophane tape or resin
gum.
• Each specimen using
different paper.
 Methods for Mounting Large Weed
Specimens
• In many cases, weed
specimens will be too
large to mount on the
sheet. There are several
solutions to this problem:
• 1)Bending Plant
• 2)Sectioning plant:
Omitting duplicate
sections of plant
• 3)Cutting plant into
sections and mounting
each
• Each specimen
should be label at
the right bottom of
paper.
• The information
includes,
-family name
-collected location
-scientific name
-collector name
-general/local name
-collected date
-reference number
• 1. Before sticking anything down
work out where the plant,
capsule and label with be
positioned on the sheet

• 2. The label must be stuck down

in the bottom right hand corner
of the sheet.

• The capsule can be placed

anywhere on the sheet that fits in
well with the shape of the plant
but it is usually placed on the top
right or top left corner.
• Dilute some PVA glue with water and
spread it on a sheet of glass that is
slightly larger than the mounting
sheets you are using. The consistency
to which the glue is mixed will
depend on the type of plant material
and can only really be judged by
experience but will be thinner for
softer material and thicker for hard
foliage

• Place the plant on the glass, in the

glue. The idea is to get an even
covering of glue on the side of the
plant that will be facing the mounting
board. The glue can be left on the
glass for the entire mounting session -
just add more glue or water as
required. The glass should be
carefully cleaned at the end of the
session though or it will be difficult to
use next time
• Flip the plant over on a clean
sheet of news paper and
check that no areas have
been missed. If they have
you can add more glue with
a brush.
• Place the plant on the
mounting board in the
position that you planned
earlier. If there are any plant
parts that overlap you will
have to slip a little glue
between them. If you don't
do this they will flap up and
eventually break off.
• Very carefully blot any
excess glue off the
specimen using greece
proof paper or news paper
• Build a multi-layer
sandwich of specimens,
greece proof paper and
thick blotting paper. The
greece proof paper
should be place on top of
the specimen to stop it
from sticking to the other
layers. The blotting paper
acts to absorb any extra
glue and as a padding
layer.
• Place weights on the top of
the sandwich and leave it
to dry for at least 24 hours.

• When the specimens have

dried any thick twigs and
branches should be made
extra secure by sewing
down with strong thread.

 Finer
twigs and leaves can
be made extra secure using
small strips of gummed
paper.
• The finished product!
• A good herbarium
specimen should last for
hundreds of years
provided:
 It has been prepared
properly using acid free
materials.
 It is handled with care.
 It is protected from water,
insect and fungal attack
• (tak´sidûrme) is process of skinning, preserving, and mounting
vertebrate animals, so that they still appear lifelike.
• The fur or feathers are cleaned, and the skin treated with a
cleansing and preserving preparation, is mounted on a man-
made skeleton.

• At first, taxidermy was used for the preservation of skins, hunting

trophies, and travel souvenirs.

• Today, taxidermy is employed mainly by museums of science. The

true contours of the specimen are preserved by making a clay
model, exactly duplicating the animal's muscle structure, over an
armature that includes the original skeleton or parts of it.
• A plaster mold is then made, from which is
produced a light, durable frame that holds the
skin in position.

• Synthetic materials, especially celluloid's often

used to reproduce the true color and
translucence of such specimens as reptiles
and fishes.

• Taxidermy not just mounting and preservation

but has become an art form with a few
Wildlife Artists standing a head above the rest.
Head Mounts
Lifesize Mounts
Rugs
• There are several different ways you may
choose to mount a mammal and each way
requires slightly different handling in the field.

• You may choose to do a full body mount. This

is most common for small mammals (like mink
and squirrels) and medium mammals (like
foxes & raccoons).

• Bear, deer and other big game animals can

also be mounted as full body mounts, but
because of the size, they require different field
care than small & medium mammals.
• Bear are the animal most often made into a
rug, but bobcats, coyotes and foxes also
make a beautiful rug.

• Field care is very similar for any animal you

want to make into a rug.

• Half or 3/4 body mounts are also very popular

for bear, but can be done for other animals as
well.

• Gameheads or full shoulder mounts is the most

popular way to display many trophy
animals. Deer and other horned and antlered
are most often mounted this way.
 BASIC RULES FOR FIELD CARE OF
ALL MAMMALS
o Whenever possible, bring it in fresh for the
taxidermist to skin.

o NEVER SLIT THE THROAT OF ANY ANIMAL !

o When field dressing any animal, always

make your cuts with the sharp edge of the
knife UP.

o When field dressing ANY animal that you

want to have as a FULL BODY MOUNT,
you must leave his/her genitals and bung
hole attached. DO NOT cut these off.

o If you must skin the animal yourself, make as

few cuts as possible.
o Do not drag the animal unless you place something
under it to protect the hide.

o NEVER hang or drag any animal by the neck! This

damages the hide and stretches the neck. Hang any
animal with the head down and drag out by the
antlers or front legs.

o Place tags carefully in the hide, doing as little

damage as possible.

o Keep every animal as COLD as possible and bring in

as SOON as possible.

o DO NOT SALT any animal unless it's head (and feet)

are completely skinned and fleshed. Freeze or keep
cold any hide that is not fully prepared.
• The drawings of the three most
common ways of skinning an
animal for a lifesize mount.

• #1 is a modified version of the

rug skinning method

• #2 is the "short cut " method

using shorter incisions on the
legs. This method is preferred
over splitting the legs
completely

• #3 is the dorsal or back

incision. This method is the
easiest to sew up and is the
least likely to show any stitches
• Reliable methods of collecting organisms are an
essential part of ecology.

• Plants-always occur in the light and are hence

visible and usually large and stationary. All these
factors make them easy to find and collect.

• Animals-may live underground, in crevices, or

simply be camouflaged; this makes them less
conspicuous. Even when seen, the animal’s ability
to move from place to place presents problems of
capture.

• Collecting all organisms within a habitat is normally

impractical and therefore small areas are
selected.
• Organisms should be identified on site

• When collecting specimens, as much

information as possible should be recorded at
the time.

• This should include details of the time, date,

location, substrate, climate and any other
relevant data.
 1.Beating tray
• This is a fabric sheet on a
collapsible frame.
• It is held under a part of a bush or a
tree which is then shaken or
disturbed with a stick.
• The organisms which are dislodged
are collected by hand.
• It is used to collect small non-flying
terrestrial organisms, e.g. spiders,
caterpillars.
2. Light traps

• Any light source will attract certain nocturnal

flying insects. A very simple light trap may be
made by placing a vertical sheet at the side of
a light source, and a horizontal one beneath it.

• This is necessary as some insects prefer to rest

vertically and others horizontally. More
effective traps involve mercury vapour lamps.
These emit much ultra-violet light which is
particularly attractive to nocturnal insects such
as moths.
 3. Tullgren funnel

• This is used to extract small animals from a

sample of soil or leaf litter. The soil sample is
placed on a coarse sieve and light with
moderate heat are used to drive the animals
downwards through the sieve. They fall into a
funnel which directs them into a collecting
vessel.
 4. Baermann funnel
• This is used to extract soil animals and is particularly effective
for worms, especially nematodes. The soil sample is contained
within a muslin bag which is then submerged in water in a
funnel. A tungsten bulb may be used as a source of heat
which, along with the water, induces the organisms to leave
the sample. They collect in the neck of the funnel from where
they can be periodically removed.
 5. Mammal traps

• The best live trap is the Longworth trap.

• It is placed in situations which small
mammals such as mice and voles
frequent, like a runway.
• It comprises a metal box with a single
entrance which closes firmly behind the
mammal when it enters.
• The box is baited with bedding and the
appropriate food to entice the animal to
enter.
• The behaviour of many small mammals
creates problems when this trap is used to
assess population sizes, because some
individuals, called ‘trap-shy’, never enter
the trap, while others, called ‘trap-happy’,
actively seek them out for the meal and
bed they provide.
 6. Pitfall traps

• A jam-jar or similar vessel is

sunk into the ground with
its rim level with the soil. It is
baited with the
appropriate food, e.g.
decaying meat to attract
scavenging insects such as
beetles, or honey to
attract ants.
• Having fallen in, the insects
are unable to climb the
smooth walls of the jar to
escape.
 7. NETTING
• Hand-held net with short handle
give greater precision for
catching insects in flight
• Kite net-for some insects is better
to stalk them until they settle
before netting them
• Sweep net – used to collect
insects from foliage.
• It is swept along grass or through
bushes, dislodging insects which
fall into the net.
• It also been used to collect
aquatic animals by sweeping it
through streams or ponds.
 Plankton net – made of
bolting silk because its
fine mesh, while
allowing water through,
traps even microscopic
organisms.
 It has a wide mouth
held open by a circular
metal frame and
narrows down to a
small collecting jar at
the other end in which
plankton accumulate.
 The net is towed slowly
through the water,
usually behind a small
boat.
• Small vials are useful in collecting arachnids,
larvae, and other soft-bodied organisms that
must be preserved immediately in alcohol.

• The killing jars are prepared for collecting

insects. They contain potassium cyanide that is
deadly and poisonous and advisable to
purchase the jars ready-made.
• Animal specimens are divided into two types:
o Soft-bodied specimens
o Hard-bodied specimens

• Preserving soft-bodied specimens

o Soft-bodied animals include jellyfish, hydras,
flatworms, soft-bodied mollusks, crustacean and
etc.
o Should be preserve first in 50% alcohol for a few
days, then transferred to 70%, and finally to 90%
alcohol.
o Formaldehyde may also be used as a preserving
fluid, although it tends to make the specimen
more brittle.
o Puncture the body of animal at several places with a
dissecting needle to ensure complete penetration of
the preservative (alcohol) takes place.

o Later, the preserved specimens can be mounted in

jars. Each specimen can be supported against a
glass slide and fastened to the glass with thread.

o Use uniformly sized, wide-mouthed jars and seal the

jars with paraffin to prevent evaporation of the
preserving fluid.

o Label the jars.

o In time, the specimens will bleach and fragment;

that is a signal to get new specimens and fresh fluid.
• Preserving hard-bodied specimens
o Preserve the following, where possible, in
the dry state.
o Sponges may be mounted on Bristol board
after drying in the sun.
o Starfish may be dried in the sun and
weighted down in a flat position before
complete drying, then mounted.
o Sea urchins should be dried in the sun after
removing the internal organs.
• Hand lens or binocular microscope to identify
species of small specimens.