Engineering Tribology

Lecture 2
 Engineering Tribology
By Gwidon W. Stachowiak and Andrew W. Batchelor
Summary
• Oil viscosity
• Viscosity temperature relationship
• Viscosity index
• viscosity pressure relationship
• Viscosity-shear rate relationship
• Viscosity measurements
Questions to address
• What are lubricants made of, and what are their properties
• Are oils different from greases
• Can mineral oils be used in high performance engines
• Which oils are the most suitable for application to gears, bearings
etc..
• What criteria should lubricant meet etc….
Performance of Lubricants
• The function of a lubricant is to control friction and wear in a given
system
• The basic requirements therefore relate to the performance of the
lubricant are
a) Its influence upon friction and wear characteristics of a system
b) The lubricant quality, which reflects its resistance to degradation in
service
Recent lubricant research
• Lubricant research is recently dedicated to the study of: prevention
and monitoring of oil degradation
• Since the lifetime of an oil is as important as its initial level of
performance
Oil degradation cause:
a) Damage to the operating machinery
b) Cost in terms of lost time and money (Machines holding thousand
of liters of lubricating oil)
c) Cause corrosion of contacting surfaces
Oil viscosity
• The parameter that plays a fundamental role in lubrication is oil
viscosity
• Different oils exhibit different viscosities
• In addition, oil viscosity changes with:
a) Temperature
b) Shear rate
c) Pressure
d) Thickness of the generated oil film
Common misconception about oil viscosity
• It appears that the more viscous oils would give better performance,
since the generated films would be thicker and a better separation of
the two surfaces in contact would be achieved
• This unfortunately is not always the case since more viscous oils
require
a) More Power to be sheared
b) The power losses are higher and more heat is generated resulting in
a substantial increase in the temperature of the contacting surfaces
Oil viscosity
• For engineering applications the oil viscosity is usually chosen to give
optimum performance at the required temperature
• Knowing the temperature at which the oil is expected to operate is
critical as oil viscosity is
a) Extremely temperature dependent
b) The viscosity of different oils varies at different rates with
temperature
c) Affected by the velocities of the operating surfaces (shear rates)
Dynamic Viscosity
• Consider two flat surfaces separated by a film of fluid of thickness ‘h’
• The force required to move the upper surface is proportional to the
wetted area ‘A’ and
• The velocity gradient
‘u/h’
• F α A × u/h

Schematic representation of the fluid separating two surfaces

Dynamic Viscosity
• This relationship is maintained for most fluids. Different fluids will
exhibit a different proportionality constant ‘η’, called the ‘dynamic
viscosity’
F = η × A × u/h
Rearranging gives:
η = (F/A) / (u/h)
or
η = τ / (u/h)
Dynamic Viscosity
η = τ / (u/h)
where:
η is the dynamic viscosity [Pas], τ is the shear stress acting on the
fluid [Pa], u/h is the shear rate, i.e., velocity gradient normal to the
shear stress [s-1]
• Before the introduction of the SI system the most commonly used
dynamic viscosity unit was the Poise
• The SI unit for dynamic viscosity is Pascal-second [Pas]
• The relationship between Poise and Pascal-second is as follows:
1 [P] = 100 [cP] ≈ 0.1 [Pas]
Kinematic Viscosity
• Kinematic viscosity is defined as the ratio of dynamic viscosity to fluid
density
υ = η/ρ
where:
υ is the kinematic viscosity [m2/s]
η is the dynamic viscosity [Pas]
ρ is the fluid density [kg/m3]
Kinematic Viscosity
• Before the introduction of the SI system the most commonly used
kinematic viscosity unit was the Stoke [S]
• The SI unit for kinematic viscosity is [m2/s]
1 [S] = 100 [cS] = 0.0001 [m2/s]
Viscosity temperature relationship
• The viscosity of lubricating oils is extremely sensitive to the operating
temperature
• With increasing temperature the viscosity of oils falls quite rapidly
• In some cases the viscosity of oil can fall by about 80% with a
temperature increase of 25°C
• From the engineering viewpoint it is important to know the viscosity
at the operating temperature since it influences the lubricant film
thickness separating two surfaces
Viscosity-Temperature Equations
The oil viscosity at a specific temperature can be obtained
a) Either from the viscosity-temperature equation
b) obtained from the viscosity-temperature ASTM chart
Viscosity-Temperature Equations

Viscosity-temperature equations
Viscosity-Temperature Equations
where:
a,b, c,d are constants;
υ is the kinematic viscosity
[m2/s]
T is the absolute
temperature [K]

Viscosity-temperature equations
Viscosity-Temperature Equations
• The most accurate of equation given in previous slides is the Vogel
equation
• Three viscosity measurements at different temperatures for a specific
oil are needed in order to determine the three constants in this
equation
• The oil viscosity can then be calculated at the required temperature,
or the operating temperature can be calculated if the viscosity is
known
Viscosity-Temperature Chart
• The most widely used chart is the ASTM (American Society for Testing
Materials) Viscosity-Temperature chart (ASTM D341), which is entirely
empirical and is based on Walther’s equation
Viscosity index

Viscosity index is a dimensionless number that represents how the

viscosity of a fluid changes with temperature
Viscosity index
• The viscosity index is an entirely empirical parameter that compares
the kinematic viscosity of the oil of interest to the viscosities of two
reference oils that have a considerable difference in sensitivity of
viscosity to temperature
• The reference oils have been selected in such a way that one has a
viscosity index equal to zero (VI=0) and the other has a viscosity index
equal to one hundred (VI=100) at 100°F (37.8°C)
• But they both have the same viscosity as the oil of interest at 210°F
(98.89°C)
VISCOSITY INDEX
• Pennsylvania and Gulf Coast
oils have the same viscosity
at 210°F (98.9°C)
• They were selected as
reference oils
• Oils made from Pennsylvania
crude were assigned the
viscosity index of 100
• Oils made from the Gulf
Coast crude the viscosity
index of 0.
Viscosity index calculations
• The viscosity index can be calculated from the following formula:
VI = (L − U) / (L − H) × 100
• Firstly the kinematic viscosity of the oil of interest is measured at 40°C
(‘U’) and at 100°C.
• Then the values of ‘L’ and ‘H’ that correspond to the viscosity at
100°C of the oil of interest are read from ASTM D2270 table
• Substituting the obtained values of ‘U’, ‘L’ and ‘H’ into the above
equation yields the viscosity index.
viscosity index

Evaluation of viscosity index

Viscosity index
• The viscosity index is an inverse measure of the decline in oil viscosity
with temperature
• High values indicate that the oil shows less relative decline in viscosity
with temperature
• The viscosity index of most of the refined mineral oils available on the
market is about 100, whereas multi-grade and synthetic oils have
higher viscosity indices of about 150
Example of VI
• Find the viscosity index of an oil that has a kinematic viscosity at
40°C of υ40°C = 135 [cS] and at 100°C of υ100°C = 17 [cS]
• Step 1
From ASTM D2270 table read for υ100°C
Table on next slide where υ100 is the kinematic viscosity of the oil of
interest at 100°C in [cS]
Example of VI
• Find the viscosity index of an oil that has a kinematic viscosity at
40°C of υ40°C = 135 [cS] and at 100°C of υ100°C = 17 [cS]
• Step 2
From ASTM D2270 table for υ100°C = 17 [cS], L = 369.4 and H = 180.2
Example of VI
• Find the viscosity index of an oil that has a kinematic viscosity at
40°C of υ40°C = 135 [cS] and at 100°C of υ100°C = 17 [cS]
• Step 3
From ASTM D2270 table for υ100°C = 17 [cS], L = 369.4 and H = 180.2
Substituting into the viscosity index equation yields:
VI = (L − U) / (L − H) × 100
VI = (369.4 − 135) / (369.4 − 180.2) × 100 = 123.9
viscosity pressure relationship
• Lubricant viscosity increases with pressure
• For most lubricants this effect is considerably larger than the effect
of temperature or shear when the pressure is significantly above
atmospheric
• This is of particular importance in the lubrication of heavily loaded
concentrated contacts, which can be found, for example, in rolling
contact bearings and gears
• The pressures encountered in these contacts can be so high and the
rate of pressure rise is so rapid that the lubricant behaves like a solid
rather than a liquid
viscosity pressure relationship
• A number of attempts have been made to develop a formula
describing the relationship between pressure and viscosity of
lubricants
• The best known equation to calculate the viscosity of a lubricant at
moderate pressures (close to atmospheric) is the Barus equation
• The application of this equation to pressures above 0.5 [GPa] can,
however, lead to serious errors
• The equation becomes even more unreliable if the ambient
temperature is high. The Barus equation is of the form:
Barus equation for viscosity pressure
relationship
ηp = η0e^αp
where:
ηp is the viscosity at pressure ‘p’ [Pas]
η0 is the atmospheric viscosity [Pas]
α is the pressure-viscosity coefficient [m2/N], which can be obtained
by plotting the natural logarithm of dynamic viscosity ‘η’ versus
pressure ‘p’
 The slope of the graph is ‘α’
p is the pressure of concern [Pa]
viscosity pressure relationship
• One of the problems associated with available formulae is that they
are most accurate when calculating the pressure-viscosity coefficients
at low shear rates
• In many engineering applications, especially in heavily loaded
concentrated contacts, the lubricant operates under very high shear
rates and precise values of the pressure-viscosity coefficient are
needed
• An accurate value of this coefficient can be determined
experimentally
viscosity pressure relationship research gap
• If an accurate analytical formula for the relationship between
viscosity, pressure and shear rate could be developed it would
certainly be useful
• Such a formula could provide a relationship between the fundamental
parameters of the lubricant and the pressure-viscosity coefficient
• This would open up the possibilities of modifying the chemical
makeup of the lubricant in order to achieve the desired pressure-
viscosity coefficient for specific applications
• Dynamic viscosity ‘η0’ for
some commonly used
lubricants
Viscosity-shear rate relationship
• From the engineering viewpoint, it is essential to know the value of
the lubricant viscosity at a specific shear rate
• For simplicity it is usually assumed that the fluids are Newtonian, i.e.,
their viscosity is proportional to shear
rate
Viscosity-shear rate relationship
• For pure mineral oils the linear proportionality is usually true up to
relatively large shear rates of 105–106 [s-1]
• but at the higher shear rates frequently encountered in engineering
applications this proportionality is lost and the lubricant begins to
behave as a non-Newtonian fluid
• In non-Newtonian fluids the viscosity depends on shear rate, i.e.,
these fluids do not exhibit a single value of viscosity over the range of
shear rates
Viscosity-shear rate relationship
• Non-Newtonian behavior is, in general, a function of the structural
complexity of a fluid
• For example, liquids like water, benzene and light oils are Newtonian.
These fluids have a loose molecular structure that is not affected by
shearing action
• On the other hand, fluids in which the suspended molecules form a
structure that interferes with the shearing of the suspension medium
are considered to be non-Newtonian
• Typical examples of such fluids are water-oil emulsions, polymer
thickened oils and grease in extreme case
Viscosity-shear rate relationship

• The non-Newtonian
behavior of some selected
fluids
Viscosity-shear rate relationship
• There are two types of non-Newtonian behavior that are important
from the engineering viewpoint:
a) Pseudoplastic behavior
b) Thixotropic behavior
Pseudoplastic behavior
• Pseudoplastic behavior is also known in the literature as shear
thinning and is associated with the thinning of the fluid as the shear
rate increases
• During the process of shearing in
polymer fluids, long molecules
that are randomly oriented and
with no connected structure tend
to align, giving a reduction in
apparent viscosity
Pseudoplastic behavior
• In emulsions a drop in viscosity is due to orientation and deformation
of the emulsion particles. The process is usually reversible
• Multigrade oils are particularly susceptible to this type of behavior;
they shear thin with increased shear rate
Pseudoplastic behavior of lubricating oils
Dilatancy behavior
• The contrary phenomenon to shear thinning is shear thickening, also
referred to as Dilatancy
• Dilatant fluids are usually suspensions with a high solid content
• The increase in viscosity with shear rate is attributed to the rearranging of
the particles suspended in the fluid, resulting in the dilation of voids
between the particles
• The theory is that in the non-shear condition molecules adopt a close
packed formation, which gives the minimum volume of voids
• When shear is applied the molecules move to an open pack formation,
dilating the voids
• As a result, there is an insufficient amount of fluid to fill the voids, giving an
increased resistance to flow
Thixotropic Behavior
• Thixotropic behavior, also known in the literature as shear duration
thinning
• It is associated with a loss of consistency of the fluid as the duration
of shear increases
• During the process of shearing,
it is believed that the structure
of the thixotropic fluid is being
broken down
Thixotropic Behavior
• The destruction of the fluid structure progresses with time, giving a
reduction in apparent viscosity, until a certain balance is reached
where the structure rebuilds itself at the same rate as it is destroyed
• In some cases the process is
reversible, i.e., viscosity returns
to its original value when shear
is removed, but permanent
viscosity loss is also possible
Inverse thixotropy
• A converse effect to thixotropic behavior, i.e., thickening of the fluid
with the duration of shearing, can also occur with some fluids
• An example of a fluid with such properties is synovial fluid, a natural
lubricant found in human and animal joints
• It was found that the viscosity of synovial fluid increases with the
duration of shearing
• The longer the duration of shearing the better the lubricating film
which is generated by the body.
Viscosity measurements
• The most commonly used in engineering applications are capillary
and rotational viscometers
• In general, capillary viscometers are suitable for fluids with negligible
non-Newtonian effects while rotational viscometers are suitable for
fluids with significant non-Newtonian effects
• Some viscometers have a special heating bath built in, in order to
control and measure the temperature, so that the viscosity-
temperature characteristics can be obtained
• Water is suitable for the temperature range between 0° and 99°C. For
higher temperatures mineral oils are used and for low temperatures
down to -54°C, ethyl alcohol or acetone is used.
Capillary viscometers
• Capillary viscometers are based on the principle that a specific
volume of fluid will flow through the capillary (ASTM D445, ASTM
D2161)
• The time necessary for this volume
of fluid to flow gives the ‘kinematic
viscosity’
• Flow through the capillary must be
laminar and the deductions are
based on Poiseuille’s law for steady
viscous flow in a pipe
Capillary viscometers
• In order to measure the viscosity of the fluid by one of the
viscometers the container is filled with oil between the etched lines
The measurement is then made by timing the period required for the
oil meniscus to flow from the first
to the second timing mark
Capillary viscometers
• Assuming that the fluids are Newtonian, and neglecting end effects,
the kinematic viscosity can be calculated from the formula:
υ = πr4glt / 8LV = k(t2 − t1)
Where:
• υ is the kinematic viscosity [m2/s]; r is the capillary radius [m]; l is the
mean hydrostatic head [m]
• g is the earth acceleration [m/s2]; L is the capillary length [m]; V is the
flow volume of the fluid [m3]
• t is the flow time through the capillary, t = (t2 − t1), [s]; k is the
capillary constant, which has to be determined experimentally by
applying reference fluid with known viscosity
Short tube viscometer
• Kinematic viscosity can also be measured by so-called ‘short tube’
viscometers. In the also known as efflux viscometers
• viscosity is determined by measuring the time necessary for a given
volume of fluid to discharge under gravity through a short tube orifice
in the base of the instrument
• The most commonly used viscometers are Redwood, Saybolt and
Engler
Schematic diagram of a short tube viscometer

Schematic diagram of a short tube viscometer

Rotational Viscometers
• Rotational viscometers are based on the principle that the fluid
viscosity is related to the force required to generate shear between
two surfaces separated by a film of fluid (ASTM D2983)
• In these viscometers one of the surfaces is stationary and the other is
rotated by an external drive and the fluid fills the space in between
• The measurements are conducted by applying either a constant
torque and measuring the changes in the speed of rotation or
• Applying a constant speed and measuring the changes in the torque
Rotational Viscometers
These viscometers give the ‘dynamic viscosity’. There are two main
types of these viscometers:
1. Rotating cylinder and
2. Cone-on-plate viscometers.
Rotational Viscometers
• The rotating cylinder viscometer, also
known as a ‘Couette viscometer’, consists
of two concentric cylinders with an
annular clearance filled with fluid
• The inside cylinder is stationary and the
outside cylinder rotates at constant
velocity
• The force necessary to shear the fluid
between the cylinders is measured
• The velocity of the cylinder can be varied
so that the changes in viscosity of the
fluid with shear rate can be assessed
Rotational Viscometers
• Care needs to be taken with non-
Newtonian fluids as these viscometers
are calibrated for Newtonian fluids
• Different cylinders with a range of
radial clearances are used for different
Fluids
Rotational Viscometers
• When motor oils are used in
European and North
American conditions, the oil
viscosity data at -18°C is
required in order to assess
the ease with which the
engine starts
• A specially adapted rotating
cylinder viscometer, known
in the literature as the ‘Cold
Cranking Simulator’ (CCS), is
used to obtain these
measurements (ASTM
D2602)
Cone on Plate Viscometer
• The cone on plate viscometer consists
of a conical surface and a flat plate,
either of these surfaces can be rotated
• The clearance between the cone and
the plate is filled with the fluid and the
cone angle ensures a constant shear
rate in the clearance space
• The advantage of this viscometer is that
a very small sample volume of fluid is
required for the test
Cone on Plate Viscometer
• In some of these viscometers, the
temperature of the fluid sample is
controlled during tests
• This is achieved by circulating
preheated or cooled external fluid
through the plate of the Viscometer
• These viscometers can be used with
both Newtonian and non-Newtonian
fluids