Elements of Writing

1. Argument 9. Numbers
2. Cause and Effect 10. Opening Paragraphs
3. Cohesion 11. References and Quotations
4. Comparison 12. Restatement and Repetition
5. Definitions 13. Style
6. Discussion 14. Synonyms
7. Examples 15.Variation in Sentence Length
8. Generalisations 16. Visual Information
1. Argument

According to Marriam Webster Dictionary, argument is

a statement or series of statements for or against
something; or a discussion in which people express
different opinions about something.
Argument is a component in organising a paragraph.
Implication in writing

Currently, roads are often congested, which is expensive in terms of

delays. It is claimed that building more roads, or widening existing

ones, would ease the congestion. But not only is the cost of such
work high, but the construction process adds to the congestion,
while the resulting extra road space may encourage extra traffic.
Therefore constructing extra roads is unlikely to solve the problem,
and other remedies, such as road pricing or greater use of public
transport, should be examined.
2. Cause and Effect To show relationship between two situations

Active

Cause: Heavy
Effect: Flooding
rain
Passive

because (of) so
since therefore
as
owing to consequently
due to which is why
3. Cohesion

Cohesion means linking phrases together so that the

whole text is clear and readable. It is achieved by several
methods, such as the use of conjunctions, reference
words, and phrases.
Implication in writing

Jenkins (1987) has researched the life cycle of new businesses. He found

that they have an average life of only 4.7 years. This is due to two main

reasons; one economic and one social. The former appears to be a lack of

capital, the latter a failure to carry out sufficient market research. Jenkins

considers that together these account for approximately 70% of business

failures.
4. Comparison

The two basic comparative forms are:

1.- er is added to one-syllable adjectives
two-syllable adjectives ending in -y (easy/easier).
2. more ... is used with words of two or more syllables.

Comparisons can be made more exact by using slightly,

much, considerably, far or significantly before the
comparative
Implication in writing
Cost of sending a letter to a domestic destination (Eurocents)

Germany 110

France 85

Japan 62

Britain 60

United States 48

Spain 45
 5. Definition
In introductions, to clarify a word
or phrase in the title.
Title: Higher education should
be free and open to all discuss.
Higher education in Britain means
university-level study
for first or higher degrees,
normally at the age of 18 or
above.
In general, to explain a word or
phrase which may be either very
technical , very recent, or with no
widely agreed meaning.
A barometer is a scientific
instrument designed to
measure atmospheric pressure.
6. Discussion To examine both sides of a case, and to
conclude by coming down in favour of one
side

+ –
benefit drawback
advantage disadvantage
A positive aspect A negative aspect
Pro (informal) con (informal)
plus (informal) minus (informal)
Implication in writing

School uniforms?

a) advantages: reduce social inequality/encourage

group identity/avoid choice
b) disadvantages: loss of individuality/expense/
unfashionable
c) discussion: overall, benefits more valuable in
most cases
 7. Example
To support main statements

Without example With example

Many plants and animals are
threatened by global warming.
Many universities ask overseas
students for IELTS scores.
Many plants and animals are
threatened by global warming. In
southern Britain, for example, the
beech tree may become extinct within
30 years
Many universities,
particularly/especially UK ones, ask
overseas students for IELTS scores.

for instance/for example namely

such as/e.g i.e.
particularly/especially in other words
A case in point that is
 To present complex ideas or data in a simple
8. Generalization
form which is easy to understand and
remember

UK smokers by gender
Men Women
43,8 % 56,2 % a) 56.2% of British smokers are
women.
b) The majority of British smokers
are women. (Generalized)
Overgeneralising

This means making statements which are

too simple or inaccurate.

People were much richer in 1999 than 20 years

earlier.
Average incomes in 1999 were nearly four times
higher than in 1979. (More Accurate)
 To discuss statistical data
9. Number

• Digits are individual numbers

etc: 4,539 – a four-digit number

• Fractions (1/2)
• Decimals (0.975)
• Percentages ; to express rate of change
• Words or phrases may replace numbers to simplify the text
(actual number unimportant)
Introduce the subject
by giving some background Followed by further
information in general but information or examples
accurate and clear

Mention the main areas

which will be covered in the
essay
A reference : an acknowledgement that you making use of another writer’s
ideas or data in your writing.

Reference : facts or figures from another writer, theory suggested by another

researcher, quotation from a work by any author.

There are three main reasons for giving references:

a) To avoid the charge of plagiarism

b) The reference can give more authority to your writing

c) The reader can find the original source

 To make reference accurately
• When reading and note-making, keep a careful record of the details
of your sources.

• Find out which system of referencing is used in your area

• Follow one of the methods:

1. Summary of a writer’s ideas

Orwell (1940) pointed out that although Charles Dickens described
eating large meals in many of his books, he never wrote about
farming. He explains this contradiction in terms of Dickens’
upbringing in London, remote from the countryside.
2. Quotation of a writer’s words.
Orwell clearly highlighted this inconsistency in Dickens: ‘It is not merely a
coincidence that Dickens never writes about agriculture and writes
endlessly about food. He was a Cockney, and London is the centre of the
earth in rather the same sense that the belly is the centre of the body.’
(Orwell, 1940: pp. 53–4)

3. Mixture of summary and quotation.

As Orwell (1940) noted, Dickens frequently described food but was
uninterested in food production. He considered that this was because of the
writer’s background: ‘He was a Cockney, and London is the centre of the
earth.’ (pp.53–4)
 12. Restatement and Repetition
Restatement is used in academic writing to expand or explain.

a) . . . individuals and employers express great creativity in arranging

alternative transport, i.e. private buses, arranged by employers or
spontaneous car sharing . . .

b) . . . the contribution of cognitive ability to university success may be higher

in physics and music than in sociology and psychology. That is, success in
psychology and sociology may require abilities and dispositions not
included in the entrance examination.
Repetition and redundancy suggest that the writer is not fully in control of the
material. They give the impression that either he does not properly understand
the language or he is trying to ‘pad’ the essay by repeating the same point

 University education in Spain is cheaper than university education in the UK.

Good writing : University education in Spain is cheaper than in the UK.

 Homelessness is a global problem in the whole world.

Good writing: Homelessness is a global problem.

 Common causes of repetition and
redundancy

a) Repeating the same point in different words

b) Unnecessary word – often preposition or pronoun
c) Irrelevant comment
d) Repetition of phrase
 13. Style

• A lot of people think that the weather is getting worse. They

say that this has been going on for quite a long time. I think
that they are quite right. Research has shown that we now get
storms etc all the time.

• It is widely believed that the climate is deteriorating. It is

claimed that this process has been continuing for nearly 100
years. This belief appears to be supported by McKinley (1997)
who shows a 55% increase in the frequency of severe winter
gales since 1905.
Rules
a) Use standard English
b) Use vocabulary accurately
c) Be as precise as possible when dealing with facts or figures
d) Conclusions should use tentative language
e) Avoid adverbs that show your personal attitude: luckily, remarkably,
surprisingly.
f) Do not contract verb forms. Use the full form.
g) Do not overuse the passive form.
Rules

• . a) Avoid the following:

a) Like (Such as, for instance)
b) Thing, nothing, something (factor, issue, topic)
c) Lots of (a significant/considerable number)
d) (get) better/worse (improve, deteriorate)
e) good/bad (positive?negative)
f) Do not use question form. Insdead use statement.
g) Avoid numbering section. Use conjunction.
h) Aviod using etc.or and so on. Insert and before the last item.
i) Avoid using two-word verbs
 14. Synonyms

To provide variety and interest for the reader.

• General Motors is the largest motor company in the world,

with total revenues amounting to 15% of the global automotive

market. The giant firm employs 360,000 people

internationally.
A) Synonyms are not always exactly the same in meaning but it is
important not to change the register.
B) Synonyms are also needed when paraphrasing or note-taking
to avoid plagiarism.
C) The accuracy of a synonym is often dependent on context.
D) Many basic words, e.g. culture, economy, society or science,
have no effective synonyms.
 15. Variation in Sentence Length
Short sentences:
Britain is an example of the university funding problem

Too many short sentences are monotonous:

Britain is an example of the university funding problem. Fees
were introduced in 1997. Spending per student had fallen by
25% since 1990. Demand continues to grow for places on the
most popular courses.
Long sentences are more interesting but can be difficult to
construct and read:

Britain is an example of the university funding problem, since although

fees were introduced in 1997 spending per student had dropped by 25%
since 1990, while demand continues to grow for places on the most popular
courses.
 Effective writing normally uses a mixture of long and short
sentences.

• Worldwide, enrolments in higher education are increasing. In

developed countries, such as China and South America over
half of all young people enter college. This growth has put
financial strain on state university systems. Many countries are
asking students and parents to contribute in a debate about
benefit of tertiary education.
 16. Visual Information
To display large quantities of information in a form that is quick and simple
to understand.
Main types of visial in academic writing:
1. Diagram (Function)
2. Table (Comparison)
3. Map (Location)
4. Pie Chart (Statistical Display)
5. Bar Chart (Proportion)
6. Line Graph (Changes in Time)