COMPUTER NETWORKS

CS610
Lecture-3
Hammad Khalid Khan
 Types of Multiplexing

 Frequency Division Multiplexing (FDM)

 Wave Division Multiplexing (WDM0)
 Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
 Review Lecture 2

 Resource Sharing

 Growth of the Internet

– Linear Scale
– Log Scale

 Tools for Probing the Internet

– PING
– TRACE ROUTE
 CHAPTER No. 4
TRANSMISSION MEDIA
 Basic Idea
 Encode data as energy and transmit energy

 Decode energy at destination back into data

 Energy can be electrical, light, radio, sound, ...

 Each form of energy has different properties and

requirements for transmission
 Transmission media
 Transmitted energy is carried through some sort of medium

 Transmitter encodes data as energy and transmits energy

through medium
– Requires special hardware for data encoding
– Requires hardware connection to transmission medium
 Transmission media
 Media can be copper, glass, air, ...
 Copper Wires
 Widely used because of low resistance to electric current,
inexpensive and easy to install
 Twisted pair wires
– Two insulated copper wires twisted together to reduce
Interference
– Examples: Telephone wiring (one pair).LAN wiring UTP
cable (4 pairs of copper wire)
 Types of Media
 GUIDED Media:
 Uses physical path
– Examples: copper wires, optical fiber, coaxial cables
etc.
 UNGUIDED Media:
 Uses no physical path
– Example: Radio waves
 Coaxial Cable
 Single wire surrounded by an insulation and a metal
shield against interference
 Example use: Cable TV wiring and early LAN wirings
 Optical Fibers

 Uses light to transport data

 Advantages of Optical Fibers
 Neither causes nor susceptible to electrical interference

 Can carry pulse much farther than copper

 Light can encode more information than electric

 One single fiber is sufficient to carry data

 Radio

 Used for public radio and TV broadcast

 Data transmission is said to operate at Radio Frequency

(RF)

 Transmission range depends on antenna size

 Satellites

 Satellites for long distance

transmission

 Satellite transponders receive,

amplify, and transmit the RF
signal back to the ground
 Geosynchronous Satellites

 Placed in an orbit (at 35,785 km or 22,223 miles above the

earth) that is exactly syncronized with the rotation of the
earth

 From the ground, it appears to stay at the same position at

all times
 Low Earth Orbit Satellites

 Rotates faster than the rotation of the earth at 200 to

400 miles above the earth

 They do not appear to remain stationary

 Low Earth Orbit Satellite Arrays is a set of satellites

communicating with each other and with the earth
surface
 Microwave

 Electromagnetic radiation beyond the frequency range

used for radio and TV

 It can be aimed in a single direction

 Can carry more information than low frequency RF

transmissions
 Infrared

 Remote controls used with TV etc uses IR

 Inexpensive wireless communication

 Limited to a small area

 Convenient for portable computers

 CHAPTER No. 5
LOCAL ASYNCHRONOUS
COMMUNICATION
(RS-232)
 Introduction
 Computers use binary digits (0s and 1s) (bits) to
represent data

 Computers communicate by sending bits through a

transmission medium (i.e. cable, air).

 This chapter describes how electric current is used to

send digital information across Short Distances
 The Need For Async Communication

 In asynchronous communication the sender and

receiver do not need to coordinate (synchronize)
before the transmission begins

 In an asynchronous system, the receiving hardware

must be ready to accept and interpret the signal
whenever it arrives
 Using Electric Current to Send Bits
 A small electric current is used to encode data
 Example: Negative voltage to represent a 0 bit, positive
voltage to represent a 1 bit.
 Standards For Communication
 Standard specifies both the timing of the signals and
the electrical details of voltage and current

 RS232-C (by EIA) is one of the most widely used

standard to transfer characters between a computer
and a device such as modem, keyboard etc.

 RS-232 defines a serial (bits are sent one after

another) asynchronous communication
 RS232-C Specifications

 Cable length < 50 feet (20mt)

 -15v (bit 1) , +15v (bit 0)

 One character => 7 or 8 data bits

 No delay between character bits

 When idle, puts -15v (bit 1) on the wire

 Each character start with a start bit(0), and end with a stop
bit(1)
 Baud Rate, Framing, And Errors
 Baud rate:
– The number of changes in the signal per second

 For simple RS-232, Baud rate = Number of bits/sec

 If the voltage measurements do not all agree or if the stop

bit does not occur exactly at the same time expected,
framing errors occur
 Full-Duplex Asynchronous Comm

 Electrical circuits require at least two wires, one of

them to carry the data signal, the other is used as
the return path, called ground

 Simultaneous transfers in two directions are

known as full-duplex transmission
Full-Duplex Asynchronous Comm
 CHAPTER No. 6
LONG DISTANCE COMMUNICATION
(Carriers, Modulation and Modems)
 Long Distance Communication

 Electric current becomes weaker as it travels over

copper

 Signal loss occurs when RS232 is attempted to use to

communicate to a remote site

 A continuous, oscillating signal, called a Carrier,

propagates farther than other signals
 Modulation
 To send data, a transmitter slightly modifies the original
information by using a carrier

 Such modifications are called “Modulation”

 The receiver
– monitors the incoming carrier,
– detects modulation,
– reconstructs the original data, and
– discards the carrier
 Types of Modulation

 Three of the modulation schemes are:

– Amplitude Modulation (AM)

– Frequency Modulation (FM)

– Phase Modulation (PM)

 Modem
 A Modulator is a hardware circuit that
– accepts a sequence of data bits
– applies modulation to a carrier wave according to the
bits
 A Demodulator is a hardware circuit that
– accepts a modulated carrier wave and
– recreates the sequence of data bits
 A Modem is a hardware that combines both modulator and
demodulator in a single device
Modem
 Multiplexing
 Q: How can two or more signals can be transmitted
simultaneously over a single wire ?

 A: By using different carrier frequencies

 Career Frequencies And
Multiplexing
 Frequency division multiplexing (FDM)

– Using multiple carrier frequencies to allow

independent signals, to travel through a medium
Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)

 FDM concept applied to the optical transmission

systems (optical fibers) is known as Wave Division
Multiplexing
 Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

 Sources sharing a medium “take turns” to send data

 Synchronous TDM gives each source an opportunity to

send data

 Statistical TDM does not give chance to a source that

does not have data to send