Introduction to computer networks:

A computer network is a collection of interconnected computing devices that can communicate with
each other and share resources such as data, hardware, and software applications. Computer networks
allow users to access and exchange information, collaborate on projects, and communicate with each
other across different locations.

Standard transmission mediums:

Transmission mediums are the physical pathways through which data is transmitted in a network.
Different types of transmission mediums include coaxial cable, unshielded twisted pair (UTP) cable, fiber
optic cable, and wireless media.

Coaxial cable consists of a copper wire surrounded by insulation, a woven shield, and a protective outer
jacket. It is widely used in cable television and broadband internet networks.

Unshielded twisted pair (UTP) cable is a type of cable consisting of several pairs of copper wires twisted
together. It is commonly used in local area networks (LANs) and wide area networks (WANs).

Fiber optic cable consists of glass or plastic fibers that transmit data using light signals. It offers high
bandwidth and is widely used in long-distance communication networks.

Wireless media uses radio waves, microwaves, or infrared signals to transmit data. It is commonly used
in mobile communication networks, wireless LANs, and satellite communication systems.

Standards for data transmissions:

Standards are a set of rules and guidelines that ensure compatibility and interoperability between
different devices and networks. Some of the commonly used standards for data transmissions include
Ethernet, RS 232, and V.24.

Ethernet is a standard for wired local area networks (LANs) that defines the rules for data transmission
over coaxial and UTP cables. It specifies the data transfer rate, frame format, and error checking
mechanisms.
RS 232 is a standard for serial communication between computers and peripheral devices. It specifies
the electrical and mechanical characteristics of the interface and the data transfer rate.

V.24 is a standard for serial communication between data terminal equipment (DTE) and data
communication equipment (DCE). It specifies the pin assignments, electrical and mechanical
characteristics, and data transfer rate.

Data communication/Terminal equipment (DCE/DTE):

Data communication equipment (DCE) refers to the devices that provide a communication interface
between data terminal equipment (DTE) and a network. DCE devices include modems, routers, switches,
and hubs. DTE refers to the devices that generate and receive data in a network, such as computers,
terminals, and printers.

Signal types and modulation techniques:

Signals can be classified into analog and digital signals. Analog signals are continuous and can take on
any value within a given range. Digital signals are discrete and can only take on specific values, typically
represented by binary digits (0 and 1).

Modulation is the process of encoding a signal onto a carrier wave to transmit it over a communication
channel. Different modulation techniques include amplitude modulation (AM), frequency modulation
(FM), and pulse code modulation (PCM).

Time & Frequency Domain Signal Analysis:

Time domain signal analysis involves analyzing the characteristics of a signal over time. It includes
analyzing signal amplitude, frequency, and phase. Frequency domain signal analysis involves analyzing
the characteristics of a signal in terms of its frequency components. It includes analyzing signal spectra,
bandwidth, and noise.

Analog Modulation Techniques (AM, FM, PCM):

Analog modulation techniques are used to encode analog signals onto a carrier wave for transmission
over a communication channel. Amplitude modulation (AM) encodes the amplitude of the signal onto
the carrier wave. Frequency modulation (FM) encodes the frequency of the signal onto the carrier wave.
Pulse code modulation (PCM) converts analog signals into digital signals by sampling and quantizing the
signal.

Principles of Digital Communication Systems:

Digital communication systems use digital signals for communication. They typically use pulse code
modulation (PCM) to encode analog signals into digital signals. Digital signals are typically represented
by binary digits (bits) and can be easily transmitted, processed, and stored using digital devices.

Digital communication systems use various modulation techniques to transmit digital signals over a
communication channel. Some of the commonly used modulation techniques in digital communication
systems include amplitude shift keying (ASK), frequency shift keying (FSK), phase shift keying (PSK), and
quadrature amplitude modulation (QAM).

Radio Frequency Communication Systems (antennae, microwave devices):

Radio frequency (RF) communication systems use electromagnetic waves to transmit signals over a
communication channel. RF communication systems typically use antennae to transmit and receive
signals. Antennae are devices that convert electrical signals into electromagnetic waves and vice versa.

Microwave devices, such as microwave transmitters and receivers, are used in RF communication
systems to transmit and receive signals at microwave frequencies. Microwave communication systems
offer high bandwidth and are commonly used in long-distance communication networks.

Bandwidth:

Bandwidth refers to the amount of data that can be transmitted over a communication channel in a
given period of time. It is typically measured in bits per second (bps) or bytes per second (Bps). The
bandwidth of a communication channel is determined by its frequency range and data transfer rate.

Noise in networks:
Noise refers to unwanted signals or interference that can disrupt or distort the transmission of data over
a communication channel. Different types of noise in networks include thermal noise, crosstalk, impulse
noise, and electromagnetic interference (EMI).

To minimize noise in networks, various techniques are used, such as using shielded cables, increasing
the signal strength, and using error detection and correction mechanisms.

Transmission Techniques:

Transmission techniques refer to the different methods used to transfer data between devices. There
are two primary transmission techniques: serial and parallel communication.

Serial Communication:

Serial communication is a method of data transmission where bits are sent one at a time over a single
channel. This method is typically used for long-distance communication because it is less susceptible to
interference. In serial communication, data is transmitted in a continuous stream.

Parallel Communication:

Parallel communication is a method of data transmission where multiple bits are sent simultaneously
over several channels. This method is typically used for short-distance communication because it is
susceptible to interference. In parallel communication, data is transmitted in parallel on several
channels.

Transmission Modes:

Transmission modes are the different ways in which data is transmitted over a communication channel.
There are three primary transmission modes: simplex, half-duplex, and full-duplex.

Simplex Transmission:

In simplex transmission, data is transmitted in only one direction. For example, a radio station is a
simplex transmission system because it only transmits data, and the listeners cannot respond.
Half-Duplex Transmission:

In half-duplex transmission, data can be transmitted in both directions, but only one direction at a time.
For example, a walkie-talkie is a half-duplex transmission system because only one person can speak at a
time.

Full-Duplex Transmission:

In full-duplex transmission, data can be transmitted in both directions simultaneously. For example, a
telephone is a full-duplex transmission system because both parties can speak and listen at the same
time.

Base Band and Broadband Transmission:

Base band transmission is the transmission of digital signals over a single channel without any
modulation. The channel is usually a wire or a cable, and the signal is transmitted in its original form.
Ethernet is an example of a base band transmission system.

Broadband transmission is the transmission of analog signals over multiple channels that are modulated
with different frequencies. The channels are typically cables or radio waves, and the signals are
transmitted at different frequencies. Cable TV and satellite communications are examples of broadband
transmission systems.

Network Hardware:

Network hardware refers to the physical components that make up a network. Some common network
hardware components include network interface cards, hubs, switches, wire concentrators, and network
traffic flow controllers.

Network Interface Cards (NICs):

A network interface card is a hardware component that connects a computer to a network. Ethernet,
token bus, and fax modem are examples of different types of network interface cards.
Hubs, Switches, and Wire Concentrators:

Hubs, switches, and wire concentrators are hardware components that connect multiple devices to a
network. A hub is a device that sends data to all connected devices, while a switch sends data only to
the device for which it is intended. A wire concentrator connects multiple cables to form a single
network segment.

Network Traffic Flow Controllers:

Repeater, bridge, and gateway are network traffic flow controllers that help manage network traffic. A
repeater is a device that amplifies and regenerates signals to prevent signal degradation. A bridge is a
device that connects two separate network segments and helps manage the flow of data between them.
A gateway is a device that connects different types of networks, allowing them to communicate with
each other.