NUTRIENT

ABSORPTION
IN CELLS
 Objective:
At the end of the lesson, you
should be able to identify the
different metabolic processes
involved in the absorption of
nutrients in various organ
systems.
 How are
nutrients
absorbed inside
the body?
Digestion is the process by
which food is broken down
into simple, soluble
compounds in the digestive
tract.
 Digestion involves ……
1. Mechanical Process - During the
mechanical process, the food is broken
down into small particles that are mixed
with the digestive juices.
This process starts in the mouth and continues into the
stomach.
2. Chemical process - During the chemical
process, also known as hydrolysis, digestive
enzyme changes food particles into soluble
forms that can be easily absorbed.
For example, enzymes change carbohydrates into simple
sugars, proteins into amino acids, and fats into fatty acids and
glycerol. The chemical process starts in the mouth and
continues into the small intestine.
 After the food undergoes
mechanical and chemical processes,
the nutrients are absorbed in the small
intestine and into the bloodstream.
Then they are passed to different cells
where they are used in metabolic
processes. For instance, the liver cells
contain enzymes which use the
nutrients to form complex molecules.
 Absorption
is the passage of
nutrients through
the intestinal walls
and into the blood.
The primary site of
absorption is
the small
intestine.
• The villi, which are tiny
finger-like projections, trap
the nutrients which are
taken in by the adjacent
cells.
• The capillaries, tiny blood
vessels contained in the villi,
serve as the passageway for
the nutrients to reach the
general blood circulation.
These nutrients are carried by the
blood to the liver and from there,
distributed to various organs and tissues.
The body is able to digest and absorb
about 90% to 98% nutrients of a mixed
diet.
 Metabolism
 is
a process that converts
absorbed nutrients into energy
needed for repair, growth, and
development of organisms.
– When metabolism results in building new substances, it
is called anabolism.
– If the nature of metabolism is destructive or oxidative
and release heat and energy, it is called catabolism.
 Gas
Exchange of
Organisms
 Objective
At the end of the lesson, you
should be able to describe the
general characteristics of the
different respiratory structures
that animals use for gas
exchange with the environment.
 Animals have respiratory structures that enable
them to breathe in oxygen that is delivered to their cells.
For instance, mammals have lungs for gas exchange.

Have you ever wondered

how other animals such as
fish, insects, frogs,
earthworms, and turtles
breathe?
• Gas exchange refers to the uptake
of oxygen from the environment
and discharge of carbon dioxide.
Diffusion is the principle involved in
gas exchange. It is the movement of
molecules from an area of high
concentration to one of low
concentration.
Animals have different respiratory structures
used for gas exchange. Important respiratory structures
include the gills, the tracheal system, the skin, and the
lungs.
 Gills
• Gills are the organs that enable fishes and other aquatic animals
to breathe in oxygen dissolved in water and excrete carbon
dioxide.

Fish and other aquatic animals have gills that are used to take in dissolved oxygen
in water. When the oral valve in their mouth opens, it draws the water into the buccal
cavity. The opercular cavity, where the gills are housed, then closes. When the oral valve
closes, the operculum (gill cover) opens to move out the water through the gills.
 Tracheal system
• The tracheal system is common in insects. This system does not need
the direct participation of the circulatory system to
transport O2 and CO2 since the air can diffuse directly to the cells.
• In every segment of the insect’s abdomen, there are pairs of openings
called spiracles, where air enters and leaves the body. These openings
connect to the tubular network called trachea that eventually
branches into tracheoles. When the oxygen reaches the tracheoles, it
diffuses into the cytoplasm of a nearby body cell. On the other
hand, CO2, which is formed as waste product, diffuses out of the cell
and eventually out of the body through the tracheal system. Another
part of the tracheal system is the air sac which serves as an air
reservoir.
 Skin
• Cutaneous respiration is
breathing through the skin. It is
common in amphibians and some
turtles.
They respire through their skin when they are
submerged in water or damp areas. It is important
for them to keep their skin moist to allow efficient
cutaneous respiration. To avoid desiccation, their
skin secretes mucus through the mucus glands.
 Lungs
• Lungs are common in mammals. Capillaries
located in the alveoli are the sites of gas
exchange.
• When air is inhaled, it passes through a
windpipe called trachea.
• The trachea then divides the air into air
passages called the bronchial
tubes or bronchi located at the lungs.
• Upon reaching the lungs, the air passes
through smaller airways called
the bronchioles with tiny balloon-like air
sacs called the alveoli at their ends.
• Capillaries, a network of tiny blood
vessels, surround the alveoli. These
vessels are the sites of gas exchange.
• After the deoxygenated blood in the
capillaries absorbs the oxygen from
the alveoli walls, it travels to the heart
which in turn, pumps it throughout the
body to provide oxygen to the cells. On
the other hand, CO2 produced by the
cells is carried by the blood back to the
lungs where it is removed through
exhalation.
1. The primary site of absorption is the _______.
2. _______are tiny finger-like projections, trap the nutrients
which are taken in by the adjacent cells.
3. ________ is the process by which food is broken down
into simple, soluble compounds in the digestive tract.
4. ________ is a process that converts absorbed nutrients
into energy needed for repair, growth, and development
of organisms.
5. ________ is the passage of nutrients through the
intestinal walls and into the blood.
6. _______are tiny blood vessels contained in the villi, serve
as the passageway for the nutrients to reach the general
blood circulation.
 7-10. Anabolism vs. Catabolism

7. Amino acids to polypetides

8. Triglycerides to fatty acids
9. Proteins to amino acids
10. Glucose to glycogen
11. _____________ refers to the uptake
of oxygen from the environment and
discharge of carbon dioxide.
12. ___________ is the principle
involved in gas exchange. It is the
movement of molecules from an area of
high concentration to one of low
13-16. Different respiratory structures
are found in the different animals.
 17-20.

17. Caterpillar
18. Flatworms
19. Tilapia
20. Humans
1. The primary site of absorption is the small intestine
2. Villi which are tiny finger-like projections, trap the
nutrients which are taken in by the adjacent cells.
3. Digestion is the process by which food is broken down
into simple, soluble compounds in the digestive tract
4. Metabolism is a process that converts absorbed
nutrients into energy needed for repair, growth, and
development of organisms
5. Absorption is the passage of nutrients through the
intestinal walls and into the blood.
6. The capillaries, tiny blood vessels contained in the villi,
serve as the passageway for the nutrients to reach the
general blood circulation
 7-10. Anabolism vs. Catabolism

7. Amino acids to polypetides = Anabolism

8. Triglycerides to fatty acids = Catabolism

9. Proteins to amino acids = Catabolism

10. Glucose to glycogen = Anabolism

11. Gas exchange refers to the uptake of oxygen
from the environment and discharge of carbon
dioxide.
12. Diffusion is the principle involved in gas
exchange. It is the movement of molecules from
an area of high concentration to one of low
13-16. Different respiratory structures are found
in the different animals.
– Gills
– Tracheal system
– Cutaneous respiration / skin
– Lungs
 17-20.

17. Caterpillar - Tracheal system

18. Flatworms - Cutaneous
respiration / skin
19. Tilapia- gills
20. Humans - lungs
Nutrient and
Waste
Transport
System
 Objective
At the end of the lesson,
you should be able to describe
the characteristics of the
different organs in the
distribution of nutrients and
transportation of wastes.
 What are the
different organs
involved in the
nutrient and waste
transport in the
body?
• The main transport system
for animals is the circulatory
system.
• The circulatory system plays
a central role in an organism’s
survival and is interconnected
with the respiratory system.
• The human circulatory system comprises of
the ….
–Heart
– blood, and
– blood vessels including arteries, the veins, and
the capillaries.
• The main functions of the circulatory
system are to distribute the nutrients
and oxygen to all body cells and
transport waste products to the liver,
kidneys, and lungs.
• This system works through diffusion—the movement of
molecules from an area of high concentration to an area
of low concentration. However, diffusion only occurs
over short distances such as between blood and air in
the lungs. In terms of the distribution of blood
throughout the human body, the process of bulk flow
takes place.

• Bulk flow is the movement of the blood

from an area of high pressure to an area of
low pressure through the action of the
heart that pumps the blood and pressurizes
it to flow. This process allows a rapid
transport of blood in all parts of the body.
 Components of the Circulatory System
• The heart is the
muscle that pumps
blood throughout the
body.
• It consists of four
chambers. The top two
chambers are
called atria while the
bottom two are
called ventricles.
 Components of the Circulatory System
• The atria are the receiving
chambers for blood returning to
the heart. The atria are thin-
walled chambers because they
need to contract only
• minimally to squeeze blood into
the ventricles.
• In contrast, the ventricles have
thicker walls because they need
to contract harder to pump
blood out of the heart and into
the circulation.
 Components of the Circulatory System
• The delivery system of the heart
is separated into two circuits:
– The pulmonary circuit,
supplied by the right side of
the heart, receives the
returning blood and
– pumps the blood to the
lungs for reoxygenation and
dispatch of carbon dioxide.
– On the other hand,
the systemic circuit, supplied
by the left side of the heart,
transports the oxygenated
blood to the entire body.
• Blood vessels are responsible for the
transport of blood throughout the body.
There are three types of blood
vessels:
1. Arteries carry oxygenated
blood away from the heart
while
2. veins carry deoxygenated
blood towards the heart.
3. Capillaries are tiny, thin-
walled vessels that allow
water, nutrients, and
oxygen from the blood to
move to the surrounding
tissues and allow wastes to
move out in the opposite
direction.
• The blood is a special connective tissue
consisting of cells surrounded by a fluid
called plasma.
• The plasma is a yellowish liquid and
considered as the biggest component of
the blood.
• Red blood cells carry oxygen to the
different tissues in the body and pick up
carbon dioxide to be eliminated.
• In a closed circulatory system, the heart pumps
blood into large vessels, branching into smaller
vessels and into different organs.
• On the other hand, in an open circulatory system,
the heart pumps the circulatory fluid called
hemolymph through circulatory vessels and goes
into the sinuses.
Homeostasis
 Objective
At the end of the
lesson, you should be able
to explain how the human
body maintains
homeostasis.
How does the
human body
maintain
homeostasis?
 Homeostasis
• Homeostasis comes from the two Greek
words homeo meaning similar
and stasis meaning stable.

It is the ability of the body to maintain

a constant internal equilibrium.
Examples of homeostasis include:
–the regulation of body
temperature;
–the regulation of water balance in
the blood;
–the regulation of blood sugar level;
and
–the regulation of blood urea level.
 Homeostasis is achieved through automatic
mechanisms. These mechanisms have at least
three interdependent components. The
components are :

1. The receptor is a sensing component that monitors

changes in the external or internal environment
2. The control center receives messages from the
receptors and initiates the response to maintain
homeostasis.
3. The effector is an organ or tissue that receives the
messages from the control center and brings about
changes needed to maintain homeostasis.
 Types of Feedback Mechanism
Homeostasis is maintained through feedback mechanisms,
which are series of events in which the condition of the body is
strictly and constantly monitored, evaluated, and changed.

• Negative feedback mechanism occurs when the

change in the body, caused by stimuli, reverses as
a response of a particular effector.
– An example is the control of the blood sugar by the hormones insulin
and glucagon which are both secreted by the pancreas. Insulin is
secreted when the blood sugar level is high while glucagon is
secreted when the blood sugar is low. When the blood sugar
increases, the hypothalamus sends signals to the pancreas to secrete
insulin into the bloodstream and lower the blood sugar level. When
the blood sugar level reaches equilibrium, the pancreas stops the
release of insulin. On the other hand, when the blood sugar level is
low, the hypothalamus sends signals to the pancreas to secrete
glucagon and increase the blood sugar level.
 Types of Feedback Mechanism
Homeostasis is maintained through feedback mechanisms,
which are series of events in which the condition of the body is
strictly and constantly monitored, evaluated, and changed.

• Positive feedback mechanism occurs when the

changes are strengthened by the response of the
effector.
– For example, the pituitary gland secretes oxytocin during childbirth as
a positive feedback mechanism. Oxytocin intensifies and speeds up
the contraction in the mother’s womb. Increase in contractions
hastens the delivery of the baby. After giving birth, the production of
oxytocin stops.
– Another example of a positive feedback is lactation, which is the
production of milk in the mammary glands. The suckling action of the
baby triggers the pituitary glands to produce prolactin, which
stimulates milk production. More suckling leads to an increase in
prolactin, which in turn leads to more lactation.
1. The main transport system for animals
is the ___________.

2-4. The human circulatory

system comprises of the ….

5- 6 The heart is consists of four

chambers. The top two chambers are
called (5) _________ while the bottom
two are called (6) ___________.
7. In a closed circulatory system, the heart pumps
____________ into different organs.
8. On the other hand, in an open circulatory
system, the heart pumps ____________ into the
different parts of the body.

Two circuits……
9. The ___________, receives the returning blood
and pumps the blood to the lungs for
reoxygenation and dispatch of carbon dioxide.
10. On the other hand, the __________, transports
the oxygenated blood to the entire body.
11. _______________ comes from the two Greek
words homeo meaning similar and stasis meaning stable.
12-14. Homeostasis is achieved through automatic
mechanisms. These mechanisms have at least three
interdependent components. The components are :_________,
__________, _____

15-16. Types of Feedback Mechanism

17. __________ control center of the human body.
18. __________ recieves the message from the different parts
of the body.
Feedback mecahnisms
19-20. _________ is secreted when the blood sugar level is high
while _________ is secreted when the blood sugar is low.
1. The main transport system for animals is the
circulatory system.
2-4. The human circulatory system comprises
of the ….
–Heart
– blood, and
– blood vessels
5- 6 The heart is consists of four chambers. The top
two chambers are called (5) atria while the bottom
two are called (6) ventricles.
7. In a closed circulatory system, the heart pumps blood
into large vessels, branching into smaller vessels and into
different organs.
8. On the other hand, in an open circulatory system, the
heart pumps the circulatory fluid called hemolymph
through circulatory vessels and goes into the sinuses.
9. The pulmonary circuit, supplied by the right side of the
heart, receives the returning blood and pumps the blood
to the lungs for reoxygenation and dispatch of carbon
dioxide.
10. On the other hand, the systemic circuit, supplied by
the left side of the heart, transports the oxygenated blood
to the entire body.
11. Homeostasis comes from the two Greek
words homeo meaning similar and stasis meaning stable.
12-14. Homeostasis is achieved through automatic
mechanisms. These mechanisms have at least three
interdependent components. The components are :
receptor , control center , effector
15-16. Types of Feedback Mechanism
Negative
Positive
17. Brain
18. Hypothalamus
19-20. Insulin is secreted when the blood sugar level is high
while glucagon is secreted when the blood sugar is low.
The Immune
System:
Defense for
Diseases
 How does the
human body fight
against harmful
microbes?
 Objective
At the end of the
lesson, you should be
able to identify the
structures and functions
of the immune system.
• The immune system is a
collection of cells, organs, and
processes that protect our body
against foreign substances that
can cause certain diseases.
• Immunity is the body’s ability to
fight certain illnesses, damages,
and diseases caused by microbes.
 Parts of Immune System
1. The bone marrow is
responsible for the production
of different types of white
blood cells which provide
defense against infections.
2. The lymph nodes are
structures that analyze
destroyed cells and find
molecules
called antigens which stimulate
an immune response, such as
activating white blood cells.
3. The spleen acts as a large
lymph node capable of
destroying and segregating
malfunctioning cells as well as
old cells.
 There are two basic types of immunity:
1. Innate immunity provides immediate actions to protect
the body against pathogenic microbes and other toxins.
This type of immunity is the first line of defense in the body. It
treats all microbes in the same way.
2. Adaptive immunity refers to a highly specific mechanism
of the immune system that recognizes a particular
pathogenic microbe. This type of immunity provides a long-
lasting protection because it has the ability to remember its
actions to a particular antigen.

Innate immunity is something already present in

the body. Adaptive immunity is created in response to exposure to a
foreign substance.
 Cells involved in innate immunity
response:
• Macrophages are white
blood cells that engulf cell
debris, bacteria, and
viruses by the process
known as phagocytosis.

• Neutrophils are white

blood cells that are smaller
than macrophages, but
they can also engulf
viruses and bacteria.
 Cells involved in innate immunity
response:
• Mast cells are abundant in
connective tissues. They can
mediate inflammatory
responses, such as allergic
reactions and
hypersensitivity.

• Dendritic cells are

specialized cells which serve
as messengers between
innate and adaptive immune
response by processing
antigens to be recognized by
the lymphocytes.
 Cells involved in adaptive immune
response:
• Lymphocytes are specialized white blood cells
that determine the specific response of the
immune system to a particular infection.
• Specific lymphocytes called
B-lymphocytes are able to produce
antibodies that destroy foreign substances
while other lymphocytes called T-
lymphocytes can recognize, respond, and
recall (immune memory) antigens.
 What is the
relationship between
the innate and the
adaptive immune
response?
 What is the relationship between the
innate and the adaptive immune response?
When the infection passed the first line
of defense provided by the innate immune
system, the cells involved in adaptive immune
system will take their place and attack the
invaders.
Innate immune response includes
dendritic cells which are very efficient in
presenting antigens that can interact with
adaptive immune response specifically with T-
lymphocytes.
 Hormones:
The Chemical
Messengers
 Objectives:
At the end of the
lesson, you should be
able to describe the
actions of the basic
types of hormones.
 Hormones
-are organic substances released by
the glands of the endocrine
system directly into the bloodstream.
-Hormones are capable of
changing the physiological and metabolic
behavior of their target cells to maintain
homeostasis.
• The hormone-
releasing
glands are the
pineal gland,
hypothalamus,
pituitary gland,
thyroid,
thymus,
pancreas,
adrenal,
testicle, and
ovary.
 Types of Hormones Based on
Chemical Structures
• Peptide and protein hormones are water-soluble
hormones that are comprised of amino acids linked via
peptide bonds. They are mainly responsible for the
regulation of growth and development.
– An example of a peptide hormone is insulin which is made up of
51 amino acid residues. This hormone regulates the metabolism
of fats and carbohydrates by promoting absorption of glucose.
• Steroid hormones are lipid-soluble hormones derived from
cholesterol. They help control salt and water balance,
metabolism, immune functions, and inflammation.
– Cortisol is an example of a steroid hormone which controls some
of the body's metabolism including the deposition of glucose in
the liver.
 Types of Hormones Based on
Chemical Structures
• Amino acid derivatives are hormones derived from the
amino acids tyrosine and tryptophan. They function as
promoters of metabolism and immunity.
– One example is a thyroid hormone known
as epinephrine or adrenaline. This hormone plays a role in the
fight-or-flight response by increasing blood flow to muscles.
• Fatty acid derivatives are hormones derived from
polyunsaturated fatty acids. They are also
called eicosanoids. They are mainly responsible for
regulating blood pressure and blood clotting.
– Prostaglandin is an example of a fatty acid derivative that is
responsible for uterine contractions.
• Endocrine glands secrete hormones directly into the
bloodstream.
Below are some examples of hormones secreted by specific glands.
 Why are
hormones
important?
 Why are hormones
important?
Hormones are chemical
messengers of the endocrine
glands which work hand in hand
with other organ systems to
maintain homeostasis and regulate
most of the body’s processes.
 The Nervous
System: The
Control System of
the Body
 Objective
At the end of the
lesson, you should be
able to identify the
parts and functions of
the nervous system.
• The nervous system is composed of
the brain, the spinal cord, and
the neurons.
–It is considered as the body’s storage
center and control system.
–It is mainly responsible for controlling and
coordinating all the organ systems by
sending messages from the brain through
nerve signals.
–It makes sure that all the parts of the body
are working together efficiently.
The nervous system is divided into
two major parts:
• The Central Nervous
System (CNS) is
composed of the brain
and spinal cord while
• Peripheral Nervous
System (PNS) is
composed of nerves
cells outside the CNS.
 Central Nervous System
• The brain lies within the
skull and shaped like a
mushroom. It is
subdivided into four
parts: brain stem,
cerebrum, cerebellum,
and diencephalon.
• The spinal cord serves
as a bridge between the
central nervous system
and the peripheral
nervous system.
Peripheral Nervous System
 Peripheral Nervous System
• The Peripheral Nervous
System (PNS) is mainly
composed of neurons.
– Neurons, also known as nerve cells,
are the basic units of the nervous
system that communicate within the
body by sending electrochemical
signals.
– Their tree-like structures
called dendrites extend from the cell
body to pick up stimuli from the
environment, and the long
transmitting processes
called axons extend from the body
cell to send signals to other neurons.
– Nerves are bundles of axons that act
as information highways that carry
signals between the brain and the
spinal cord and the rest of the body.
 PNS can be classified into two groups:
• Somatic Nervous System (SNS) is
responsible for the voluntary movement of
the muscles and organs and the reflex
movement.
• Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) is
responsible for controlling the involuntary
movement of the visceral muscle tissue,
cardiac muscle tissue, and glandular tissue.
It makes your heartbeat and breathing
constantly working.
 The neurons of the ANS is
classified into :
• Sympathetic neurons initiate the “fight or flight”
response of the body to stress, danger,
excitement, and other emotions.
– It increases respiration and heart rate, releases
adrenaline and other stress hormones, and decreases
digestion.
• Parasympathetic neurons initiate the “rest and
digest” response to rest, relaxation, and feeding.
– It decreases respiration, increase digestion, and allows
elimination of wastes.
Body Systems:
How They
Work
Together
 Objective:
At the end of the lesson,
you should be able to
describe the relationship of
organ systems in ensuring
animal survival.
 Organ systems
are the most complex
organizations in the human body.
Each system has its specific
function, but it works with the
other organ systems to ensure
the organism's survival.
 The 11 organ systems of the body are the:
1. The respiratory system is responsible for supplying the blood with oxygen.
2. The circulatory system distributes O2, hormones, and nutrients to every part
of the body.
3. The skeletal system provides the framework and protection of body parts by
encasing vital organs with hard bones.
4. The muscular system helps the body move from one position to another.
5. The digestive system converts food into usable energy in the form of ATP.
6. The reproductive system enables the organism to reproduce to ensure the
survival of the species.
7. The integumentary system protects the body from damage, such as abrasion
and loss of water.
8. The lymphatic system transports lymph, which contains infection-fighting
white blood cells, throughout the body.
9. The excretory system removes wastes and excess, unnecessary materials
from the body fluids to maintain internal balance and prevent organ damage.
10. The endocrine system produces hormones that regulate metabolism, growth,
and development.
11. The nervous system coordinates voluntary and involuntary actions of the
body.
 Relationships of
Organ Systems
1. Processing and Transport of
Nutrients
2. Transport of Oxygen and
Carbon Dioxide
3. Removal of Wastes
4. Maintenance of Homeostasis