Biomedical Instruments

Classification of Biomedical Equipments

1. Diagnostic equipment
2. Therapeutic equipment
3. Clinical equipment
4. Laboratory equipment

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Sources of Biomedical Signals

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 Sources of Bioelectric potentials

• The systems in the human body generate their on

monitoring signals when they carry out their functions.

• These signals provide useful information about their

function.

• Bioelectric potentials are actually ionic voltages produced

as a result of electro chemical activity of certain cell.

• Transducers are used to convert these ionic potentials in to

electrical signals

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 Resting and Action potentials

• Certain types of cells within the body , such as nerve and

muscle cells are encased in a semi permeable membrane.

• This membrane permits some substances to pass through

while others are kept out.

• Surrounding the cells of the body are the body fluids

• These fluids are conductive solutions containing charged

atoms known as ions

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 Resting potentials

• The principle ions are sodium(Na+) Potassium(K+) and

chloride(C-)

• The membrane of excitable cells permit entry of

Potassium(K+) and chloride(C-) ions but blocks the entry of
sodium(Na+) ions.
• So inside the cell is more negative than outside cell

• This membrane potentials is called Resting potentials

• This potential is measured from inside the cell with respect

to body fluids.
• So resting potential of a cell is negative.
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 Resting potentials/Polarization

• This resting potential ranging from -60mv to -100 mv.

• Cell in the resting state is called polarized cell.

Cell Membrane

V -70 mV

Ground

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 Depolarization of cell

• When a cell is exited, the membrane change its

characteristic.

• The sodium ions are rushed in to the cell.

• At the same time potassium ions try move from

inside.

• After a equilibrium state is reached, the sodium is

moved back to outside

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 Depolarization of cell

Na+
Na+
Cell Membrane
Na +

K+
K+
K+
Na+ K+

K+ Na+
K+

Na+ K+ K+
Na+
Na+

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Action potentials

Cell Membrane

V 20 mV

Ground

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 Re Polarization

• Cell comes from de polarized state in to polarized state is

called Re polarization.

Cell Membrane

V -70 mV

Ground

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Resting and Action potentials

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 Propagation of Action potentials

• When a cell is exited and generates an action potentials

ionic currents to flow.
• This process exite neighboring cells or adjacent area of the
same cell

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Bio- Potential Electrodes

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 Measurement of Bioelectric potentials

• To measure bioelectric potentials , a transducer is required.

• Electrical signals produced by various body activities are

used in monitoring / diagnosis

• In order to measure and record potentials and, hence, currents

in the body, it is necessary to provide some interface
between the body and the electronic measuring apparatus.

• .
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 Bio Potential Electrodes

• Bio-potential electrodes carry out this interface function.

• A transducer consists of two electrodes, which measure ionic
potential difference between two points.

• The designation of the Bio potential waveform ends with

“Gram”.

• The name of the instrument bio potential normally ends

with “Graph”

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 Bio Potential Electrodes

• Propagation of action potential through different body tissues

produces final waveform recorded by electrodes

• Electrical activity is explained by differences in ion

concentrations within the body (sodium, Na+; cloride, Cl–;
potassium, K+)

• A potential difference (voltage) occurs between 2 points with

different ionic concentrations

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 Bio Potential Electrodes

• Bio-potential electrodes transduce ionic conduction to

electronic conduction so that bio-potential signals can be
obtained
• They generally consist of metal contacts packaged so that they
can be easily attached to the skin or other body tissues

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Classification of Electrodes

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 Bio Potential Electrodes

1. Micro Electrodes--- Bio electric potential near or within a

single cell
– Metal Type—Tip must be tungsten or stainless
steel
– Micro pipette---It is a glass micropipet with size
of 1 micron, It is filled with electrolyte

2. Skin surface electrode —Measure ECG,EEG,EMG

3. Needle electrode ---Penetrate the skin to record EEG

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 Microelectrodes

• Used to measure bio-potential signals at the

cellular level

• Due to small dimensions (mm), impedance

levels are high

• So amplifier needs very high input

impedance
Microelectrodes
METAL MICROELECTRODES
MICROPIPETTE ELECTRODES
Surface electrodes
METAL-PLATE ELECTRODES
 Floating electrodes
• Conductive paste reduces effect of electrode
slippage and resulting motion artifact
Needle electrodes
ELECTRODE ARRAYS
ECG - Electrocardiogram
ECG - applications

● Diagnostics
● Functional analysis
● Implants (pace maker)
● Biofeedback (Heartrate variability, HRV)
 Electro Cardio Gram(ECG)

• Bio electric potentials generated by heart muscles are called

Electro Cardio Gram.

• It is sometimes called EKG(Electro Kardio Gram)

• Electrocardiography (ECG) is an interpretation of the

electrical activity of the heart over a period of time.

• The recording produced by this noninvasive procedure is

termed as electrocardiogram (also ECG or EKG).

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Origination of the QRS - Signal
ECG: Heart- vector, QRS Complex
Electro Cardio Gram(ECG)

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ECG Leads

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 ECG Leads
Leads are electrodes which measure the difference in
electrical potential between either:

1. Two different points on the body (bipolar leads)

2. One point on the body and a virtual reference point with zero electrical
potential, located in the center of the heart (unipolar leads)
 Placement of ECG electrode

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 EKG Leads
The standard EKG has 12 leads:
3 Standard Limb Leads
3 Augmented Limb Leads
6 Precordial Leads
 ECG Leads
Two types of Leads

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Standard Limb Leads
 Standard Limb Leads

1. Lead I = (VLA - VRL) - (VRA - VRL) = VLA – VRA

2. Lead II = (VLL - VRL) - (VRA - VRL) = VLL – VRA
3. Lead III = (VLL - VRL) - (VLA - VRL) = VLL - VLA

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 Augmented Limb Leads
•

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Chest Leads
Leads Waveform
ECG Recorder

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 ECG

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Introduction to ECG measurement system

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ECG measurement system

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 ECG measurement system

The ECG system comprises four stages, each stage is as

following:
• (1)The first stage is a transducer—AgCl electrode, which
convert ECG into electrical voltage. The voltage is in the range
of 1 mV ~ 5 mV.
• (2) The second stage is an instrumentation amplifier (Analog
Device, AD624), which has a very high CMRR (90dB) and high
gain (1000), with power supply +9V and -9V.
• (3) We use an opto-coupler (NEC PS2506) to isolate the In-
Amp and output.
• (4) After the opto-coupler is a bandpass filter of 0.04 Hz to 150
Hz filter. It’s implemented by cascading a low-pass filter and
a high pass filter.
•
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Simple Block diagram of ECG

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ECG Machine

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EEG - Electroencephalogram
EEG - applications

● Diagnostics (Epilepsy, Oncology, ..)

● Cognitive Sciences
● Sleep Analysis
● Human Computer Interfaces
● Pharmacology
● Intensive Care, Monitoring
 Electroencephalography (EEG)

• Electroencephalography (EEG) is the recording of electrical

activity along the scalp.

• EEG measures voltage fluctuations resulting from ionic

current flows within the neurons of the brain.

• Electroencephalogram (EEG) was first measured in humans

by Hans Berger in 1929.

• EEG is most often used to diagnose epilepsy, which causes

abnormalities in EEG readings.

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EEG, dominant frequencies, < 300 uV
 Electroencephalography (EEG)

• It is also used to diagnose sleep disorders, coma, and brain

death

• Among the basic waveforms are the alpha, beta, theta, and
delta rhythms.

• Alpha waves occur at a frequency of 8 to 12 cycles per second

in a regular rhythm.

• They are present only when you are awake but have your
eyes closed.

• Usually they disappear when you open your eyes or start

mentally concentrating.
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 Electroencephalography (EEG)

• Beta waves occur at a frequency of 13 to 30 cycles per

second.

• They are usually associated with anxiety, depression, or the

use of sedatives.

• Theta waves occur at a frequency of 4 to 7 cycles per second.

• They are most common in children and young adults.

• Delta waves occur at a frequency of 0.5 to 3 cycles per

second.

• They generally occur only in young children during sleep.

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• Many naturally occurring signals in the human
body effect EEG signals
• Frequency Analysis helps to separate the
different signals

58
 Electroencephalography (EEG)
• .

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 Electrode placement
• Electrode placement can effect signals
received

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EEG artifacts: Eye blinks, muscle tension
EEG artifacts: movement, electrode drifting
EEG artifacts: mains interference, 50/60Hz noise
 Evoked Potentials

• .

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EEG Electrodes

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 Ear clip electrode
Singe disk gold plated electrodes

Sliver Electrodes Electrodes Cap

 Electrode Placement
• Standard “10-20 System”
• Spaced apart 10-20%
• Letter for region
– F - Frontal Lobe
– T - Temporal Lobe
– C - Center
– O - Occipital Lobe
• Number for exact position
– Odd numbers - left
– Even numbers - right
 Electrode Placement
• A more detailed view:
EEG Electrode – cap locations of
the 10/20 system
 EEG Electrodes

• There are two system of electrode placement:

• 1- 10-20 international system: includes 21 electrodes.
• 2- 10-10 international system: includes 64 electrodes.

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EEG Electrodes

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Unipolar measurement
( indifferential right ear
electrode )

Bipolar measurement
Sharp Wave, Regional, Left Temporal
Sharp Wave, Regional, Right Frontal
Sharp Wave, Regional, Right
Posterior Temporal
Sharp Wave, Regional, Central Vertex
 Electroencephalography (EEG)

• EEG machine consists of the following components

• 1- Electrodes.
• 2- Amplifiers.
• 3- Filters.
• 4- Recording unit.

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Computerized EEG Machine
Analog EEG

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Digital EEG

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Quantitative EEG (QEEG),

many EEG channels (up to 256)

source / dipole localisation
Maps of EEG spectrums in standards
bands
• Eyes opened
condition.
Maps of EEG spectrums
• Eyes closed condition
EEG spectrums in individual bands

Regular theta -
idling rhythm
Irregular theta -
working activity
Reading and math
produce alpha
rhythms that are
different in
frequency and
location.