Mobile Communications

Chapter 5: Satellite Systems

 History  Handover
 Basics  Routing
 Localization  Systems
 Satellite systems

• Satellite communication introduces another system supporting mobile

communications.
• Satellites offer global coverage without wiring costs for base stations
and are almost independent of varying population densities (describes
how compact or concentrated something is).
• After a short history of satellite development and presentation of
different areas of application, this chapter introduces the basics of
satellite systems.
• Orbit, visibility, transmission quality, and other system characteristics
are all closely linked.
• Several restrictions and application requirements result in three major
classes of satellites, GEO (Geostationary (or geosynchronous) earth
orbit) , MEO (Medium earth orbit) , and LEO (Low earth orbit) .
• The high speed of satellites with a low altitude(the height of an object
or point in relation to sea level or ground level) raises new problems for
routing, localization of mobile users, and handover of communication
links. All aspects are discussed in coming slides.
 History of satellite communication

1945 Arthur C. Clarke publishes an essay about „Extra

Terrestrial Relays“
1957 first satellite SPUTNIK
1960 first reflecting communication satellite ECHO
1963 first geostationary satellite SYNCOM
1965 first commercial geostationary satellite „Early Bird“
(INTELSAT I): 240 duplex telephone channels or 1 TV
channel, 1.5 years lifetime
1976 three MARISAT satellites for maritime communication
1982 first mobile satellite telephone system INMARSAT-A
1988 first satellite system for mobile phones and data
communication INMARSAT-C
1993 first digital satellite telephone system
1998 global satellite systems for small mobile phones
 Applications

 Traditionally
 weather satellite:- Several satellites deliver pictures of the earth using, e.g.,
infra red or visible light. Without the help of satellites, the forecasting of
hurricanes(a storm with a violent wind) would be impossible.
 radio and TV broadcast satellites:- Hundreds of radio and TV programs
are available via satellite. This technology competes with cable in many
places, as it is cheaper to install and, in most cases, no extra fees have to
be paid for this service.
 Today’s satellite dishes have diameters of 30–40 cm in central Europe, (the
diameters in northern countries are slightly larger).
 military satellites:- One of the earliest applications of satellites was their
use for carrying out espionage. Many communication links are managed
via satellite because they are much safer from attack by enemies.
 satellites for navigation and localization:- Even though it was only used for
military purposes in the beginning, the global positioning system (GPS) is
nowadays well-known and available for everyone. e.g., for fleet
management of trucks or for vehicle localization in case of theft.
 Applications

Telecommunication
 global telephone connections:- Instead of using cables it was
sometimes faster to launch a new satellite (aka ‘big cable in the sky’).
However, while some applications still use them, these, satellites are
increasingly being replaced by fiber optical cables crossing the oceans.

 connections for communication in remote places or underdeveloped

areas:- : Due to their geographical location many places all over the
world do not have direct wired connection to the telephone network or
the internet (e.g., researchers on Antarctica) or because of the current
state of the infrastructure of a country.
 Satellites now offer a simple and quick connection to global networks
 Applications

 global mobile communication :-

 The latest trend for satellites is the support of global mobile data
communication.
 Due to the high latency, geostationary satellites are not ideal for this task;
therefore, satellites using lower orbits are needed .
 The basic purpose of satellites for mobile communication is not to replace the
existing mobile phone networks, but to extend the area of coverage.
 Cellular phone systems, such as AMPS and GSM (and their successors) do not
cover all parts of a country.
 Areas that are not covered usually have low population where it is too
expensive to install a base station.
 With the integration of satellite communication, however, the mobile phone can
switch to satellites offering worldwide connectivity to a customer.
 Classical satellite systems for global mobile
telecommunications

Inter Satellite Link

(ISL)
Mobile User
Link (MUL) MUL
Gateway Link
(GWL) GWL

small cells
(spotbeams)

base station
or gateway
footprint

ISDN PSTN GSM

PSTN: Public Switched User data

Telephone Network
 Classical satellite systems for global mobile
telecommunications
 each satellite can cover a certain area on the earth with its beam (the
so-called ‘footprint’).
 Within the footprint, communication with the satellite is possible for
mobile users via a mobile user link (MUL) and for the base station
controlling the satellite and acting as gateway to other networks via the
gateway link (GWL).
 Satellites may be able to communicate directly with each other via
intersatellite links (ISL).
 This facilitates direct communication between users within different
footprints without using base stations or other networks on earth.
 Saving extra links from satellite to earth can reduce latency for data
packets and voice data.
 Some satellites have special antennas to create smaller cells using
spot beams (e.g., 163 spot beams per satellite in Intermediate Circular
Orbit ).
 Classical satellite systems for global mobile
telecommunications
 Satellite systems are, and will continue to be, a valuable addition to the
many networks already in existence on earth.
 Users might communicate using ISDN or other PSTN, even cellular
networks such as GSM and UMTS.
 Many gateways provide seamless communication between these
different networks.
 A real challenge, for example, is the smooth, seamless handover
between a cellular network and a satellite system (vertical handover)
as it is already well known from within cellular networks (horizontal
handover).
 Users should not notice the switching from, e.g., GSM, to a satellite
network during conversation.
 Basics

gR 2
r  3
(2 f ) 2
 Basics

 From the last equation it can be concluded that the distance of a

satellite to the earth’s surface depends on its rotation frequency.
 Coming Figure shows this dependency in addition to the relative
velocity of a satellite.
 The interesting point in the diagram is when the satellite period equals
24 hours.
 This is exactly the case for a distance of 35,786 km.
 Having an orbiting time of 24 hours implies a geostationary satellite if it
is additionally placed above the equator.
 Centrifugal force

Tendency of an object following a curved path to fly away from the

center of curvature.
Direction:- Along the radius of the circle, from the center towards the
object.
Example:- Mud flying off a tire; children pushed out on a roundabout.

Attractive force:- the force by which one object attracts another.

Antonyms:
repulsion, repulsive force
the force by which bodies repel one another
Satellite period and orbits

24 satellite
velocity [ x1000 km/h] period [h]
20

16

12

4
synchronous distance
35,786 km

10 20 30 40 x106 m
radius
 Basics

 elliptical or circular orbits

 complete rotation time depends on distance satellite-earth
 inclination: angle between orbit and equator
 elevation: angle between satellite and horizon
 LOS (Line of Sight) to the satellite necessary for connection
 high elevation needed, less absorption due to e.g. buildings
 Uplink: connection base station - satellite
 Downlink: connection satellite - base station
 typically separated frequencies for uplink and downlink
 Transponder(A wireless communications device usually attached to
a satellite. A transponder receives and transmits radio signals at a
prescribed frequency range. After receiving the signal a transponder
will at the same time broadcast the signal at a different
frequency.)used for sending/receiving and shifting of frequencies
 transparent transponder: only shift of frequencies
 regenerative transponder: additionally signal regeneration
 Inclination

plane of satellite orbit

satellite orbit

perigee

inclination d

equatorial plane
 Inclination and elevation angle

 The inclination angle δ (see previous Figure) is defined as the angle

between the equatorial plane and the plane described by the satellite
orbit.
 An inclination angle of 0 degrees means that the satellite is exactly
above the equator.
 If the satellite does not have a circular orbit, the closest point to the
earth is called the perigee.
 The elevation angle ε (see coming Figure) is defined as the angle
between the centre of the satellite beam and the plane tangential to the
earth’s surface.
 A so called footprint can be defined as the area on earth where the
signals of the satellite can be received
 In satellite communications, when a satellite is at its closest point to the
earth, it is at the perigee of the orbit.
 Elevation

Elevation:
angle e between center of satellite beam
and surface

minimal elevation:
elevation needed at least e
to communicate with the satellite
 Link budget of satellites

Parameters like attenuation or received power determined by four

parameters:
 sending power L: Loss
f: carrier frequency
 gain of sending antenna r: distance
c: speed of light
 distance between sender
 4 r f 
2
and receiver
 gain of receiving antenna
L   
 c 
Problems
 varying strength of received signal due to multipath propagation
 interruptions due to shadowing of signal (no LOS)
Possible solutions
 Link Margin to eliminate variations in signal strength
 satellite diversity (usage of several visible satellites at the same time)
helps to use less sending power
Atmospheric attenuation
Attenuation of
the signal in % Example: satellite systems at 4-6 GHz

50

40 rain absorption

30
fog absorption
e

20

10
atmospheric
absorption

5° 10° 20° 30° 40° 50°

elevation of the satellite
 Orbits I

Four different types of satellite orbits can be identified depending

on the shape and diameter of the orbit:
 GEO: geostationary orbit, ca. (conjunction analysis). 36000 km
above earth surface
 LEO (Low Earth Orbit): ca(conjunction analysis). 500 - 1500 km
 MEO (Medium Earth Orbit) or ICO (Intermediate Circular Orbit):
ca. 6000 - 20000 km
 HEO (Highly Elliptical Orbit) elliptical orbits
 Orbits II

GEO (Inmarsat)

HEO MEO (ICO)

LEO inner and outer Van

(Globalstar, Allen belts
Irdium)

earth

1000
10000

Van-Allen-Belts: 35768
km
ionized particles
2000 - 6000 km and
15000 - 30000 km
above earth surface
 Van-Allen-Belts:

 A radiation belt is a layer of energetic charged particles that is held in

place around a magnetized planet, such as the Earth, by the planet's
magnetic field.
 The Earth has two such belts and sometimes others may be
temporarily created.
 The discovery of the belts is credited to James Van Allen, and as a
result the Earth's belts are known as the Van Allen belts.
 The main belts extend from an altitude of about 1,000 to 60,000
kilometers above the surface in which region radiation levels vary.
 Ionizing radiation is radiation that carries enough energy to free
electrons from atoms or molecules, thereby ionizing them.
 Ionizing radiation is made up of energetic subatomic particles, ions or
atoms moving at high speeds (usually greater than 1% of the speed of
light), and electromagnetic waves on the high-energy end of the
electromagnetic spectrum.
 Geostationary satellites

Orbit 35,786 km distance to earth surface, orbit in equatorial plane

(inclination 0°)
 complete rotation exactly one day, satellite is synchronous to earth
rotation
 fix antenna positions, no adjusting necessary
 satellites typically have a large footprint (up to 34% of earth surface!),
therefore difficult to reuse frequencies
 bad elevations in areas with latitude above 60° due to fixed position
above the equator
 Latitude means the angular distance of a place north or south of the
earth's equator, usually expressed in degrees and minutes.
 Equator a line notionally drawn on the earth equidistant from the poles,
dividing the earth into northern and southern hemispheres and
constituting the parallel of latitude 0°.
 Hemisphere means half of sphere
 Geostationary satellites

 Sphere means around solid figure, or its surface, with every point on its
surface equidistant from its centre

 high transmit power needed

 high latency due to long distance (ca. 275 ms)

not useful for global coverage for small mobile phones and data
transmission, typically used for radio and TV transmission
 LEO systems

Orbit ca(coverage area). 500 - 1500 km above earth surface

 visibility of a satellite ca. 10 - 40 minutes
 global radio coverage possible
 latency comparable with terrestrial long distance
connections, ca. 5 - 10 ms
 smaller footprints, better frequency reuse
 but now handover necessary from one satellite to another
 many satellites necessary for global coverage
 more complex systems due to moving satellites

Examples:
Iridium (start 1998, 66 satellites)
 Bankruptcy in 2000, deal with US DoD (free use,
saving from “deorbiting”)
Globalstar (start 1999, 48 satellites)
 Not many customers (2001: 44000), low stand-by times for mobiles
 MEO systems

Orbit ca. 5000 - 12000 km above earth surface

comparison with LEO systems:
 slower moving satellites
 less satellites needed
 simpler system design
 for many connections no hand-over needed
 higher latency, ca. 70 - 80 ms
 higher sending power needed
 special antennas for small footprints needed

Example:
ICO (Intermediate Circular Orbit, Inmarsat) start ca. 2000
 Bankruptcy, planned joint ventures with Teledesic, Ellipso – cancelled
again, start planned for 2003
 Routing

One solution: inter satellite links (ISL)

 reduced number of gateways needed
 forward connections or data packets within the satellite network as long
as possible
 only one uplink and one downlink per direction needed for the
connection of two mobile phones
Problems:
 more complex focusing of antennas between satellites
 high system complexity due to moving routers
 higher fuel consumption
 thus shorter lifetime
Iridium and Teledesic planned with ISL
Other systems use gateways and additionally terrestrial networks
 Localization of mobile stations

Mechanisms similar to GSM

Gateways maintain registers with user data
 HLR (Home Location Register): static user data
 VLR (Visitor Location Register): (last known) location of the mobile station
 SUMR (Satellite User Mapping Register):
 satellite assigned to a mobile station
 positions of all satellites

Registration of mobile stations

 Localization of the mobile station via the satellite’s position
 requesting user data from HLR
 updating VLR and SUMR(satellite user mapping register)
Calling a mobile station
 localization using HLR/VLR similar to GSM
 connection setup using the appropriate satellite
 Handover in satellite systems

Several additional situations for handover in satellite systems

compared to cellular terrestrial mobile phone networks caused
by the movement of the satellites
 Intra satellite handover
 handover from one spot beam to another
 mobile station still in the footprint of the satellite, but in another cell
 Inter satellite handover
 handover from one satellite to another satellite
 mobile station leaves the footprint of one satellite
 Gateway handover
 Handover from one gateway to another
 mobile station still in the footprint of a satellite, but gateway leaves the
footprint
 Inter system handover
 Handover from the satellite network to a terrestrial cellular network
 mobile station can reach a terrestrial network again which might be
cheaper, has a lower latency etc.
 Overview of LEO/MEO systems

Iridium Globalstar ICO Teledesic

# satellites 66 + 6 48 + 4 10 + 2 288
altitude 780 1414 10390 ca. 700
(km)
coverage global 70° latitude global global
min. 8° 20° 20° 40°
elevation
frequencies 1.6 MS 1.6 MS  2 MS  19 
[GHz 29.2  2.5 MS  2.2 MS  28.8 
(circa)] 19.5  5.1  5.2  62 ISL
23.3 ISL 6.9  7
access FDMA/TDMA CDMA FDMA/TDMA FDMA/TDMA
method
ISL yes no no yes
bit rate 2.4 kbit/s 9.6 kbit/s 4.8 kbit/s 64 Mbit/s 
2/64 Mbit/s 
# channels 4000 2700 4500 2500
Lifetime 5-8 7.5 12 10
[years]
cost 4.4 B$ 2.9 B$ 4.5 B$ 9 B$
estimation