Topic - 3

What is an atom?
 An atom is the smallest component of an element.
number of electrons = number of protons

Nucleus (Protons and

Neutrons)

Energy Level or
Electron Shells

Sub Atomic
Particles
 Mass of all sub atomic particles are measured by
atomic mass unit (amu).
Proton Number and Nucleon Number
An atom of helium has two protons, two electrons and two neutrons.
Helium
Example:

4 - 2

2
Examples for calculation of neutron number:
 Ions
What is an Ion?
An ion is an electrically charged particle.

How ion can generate?

When an atom loses or gains one or more electrons it becomes
an ion.

What are the types of Ion?

Positive Ion (+)
Negative Ion (-)
For example:
For example:
Isotopes
 Atoms that have the same number of protons, but
have different numbers of neutrons
 Examples Notice that each of these atoms have one proton;
therefore they are all types of hydrogen. They
just have a different mass number (# of neutrons).

-
+ + +

-
Hydrogen (Protium) Hydrogen (Deuterium) Hydrogen (Tritium)
There are two types of isotopes:

a) Stable Isotopes
b) Unstable Isotopes.

The isotopes which are unstable, as a result of the extra

neutrons in their nuclei, are radioactive and are called
radioisotopes. For example, uranium-235, which is
used as a source of power in nuclear reactors and cobalt-
60, which is used in radiotherapy treatment are both
radioisotopes.
How to find out the presence of
isotopes?

How to calculate the relative atomic mass?

Mass Spectroscopy
Relative Atomic Mass
 The average mass of a large number of atoms of an element
is called its relative atomic mass (symbol - Ar)

 An atom of carbon-12 was taken to have a mass of 12 amu.

1/12 of the mass of one carbon-12 atom = 1 amu
Example
Calculate the relative atomic
mass of Chlorine
 Arrangement of electrons in atom
The way in which the electrons are distributed is called the electronic
structure

Third Energy Level (18 e-)

Second Energy Level (8 e-)
First Energy Level (2 e-)

Nucleus

Neon
Helium
Argon Electrons
Arrangement of electrons in Oxygen atom

Second Energy Level (8 e-)

First Energy Level (2 e-)

8 Nucleus

Oxygen Atom
Electron Structure (2,6)
Electrons
 18

Argon Electrons
Electron Structure (2,8,8)
 11

Sodium Electrons
Electron Structure (2,8,1)
 Potassium

19

Electrons
Electron Structure (2,8,8, 1)
 Ionic bonding
 Ionic bonds are usually found in compounds that contain metals
combined with nonmetals.
 Electrons are transferred from metal atom to nonmetal atom during the
chemical reaction.
 A strong mutual attraction formed between ions of opposite charge .
 Each atoms are stable by having full outer energy level.

Metal Atom Non - Metal Atom

 Losing of electrons is called oxidation.

 Gaining of electrons is called reduction.

 Remember

LEO
Losing of Electrons is called Oxidation.
GER

Gaining of Electrons is called Reduction

 Sodium (Na) Chlorine (Cl)
Electron Structure (2,8,1) Electron Structure (2,8,7)
Sodium Ion Chlorine Ion
(Na+)
-
(Cl )

Stable like Neon (2, 8) Stable like Argon (2, 8, 8)

 Magnesium (Mg) Oxygen (O)
Electron Structure (2,8,2) Electron Structure (2,6)
Magnesium Ion Oxygen Ion
(Mg2+)
2-
(O )
Ionic structures
Ionic structures are solids
at room temperature

They have high melting and boiling points

The ions are packed together in a regular arrangement
called a lattice.
Within the lattice, oppositely charged ions attract one
another strongly.
 Not all the ionic substance having the same structure
 Example
Properties of ionic compounds
 They are usually solids at room temperature, with high
melting points.
 They are usually hard substances.
 They usually cannot conduct electricity when solid,
because the ions are not free to move.
 They mainly dissolve in water.
 They usually conduct electricity when in the molten
state or in aqueous solution.
Formulae of ionic substances
Covalent Bonding
This occurs between non-metal atoms

Covalent bond is formed by sharing of one of more electrons pairs between

two atoms.

Covalent Bond represent by single line between the atoms

H × H ×
Covalent bond between 2 chlorine atoms (Cl2)
Cl-Cl

×× ××
×

××
×
××

Cl  Cl

×× ××
Other covalent compounds
Methane – CH4 6C - 2, 4 1H - 1
In this case each carbon atom needs to share four electrons to gain the electron
configuration of neon
Ammonia
NH3
Water – H2O
Carbon dioxide
CO2
In this case each carbon atom needs to share four electrons to gain the
electron configuration of neon

Each oxygen needs to share two electrons to gain the electron configuration
of neon.

This is achieved by forming two double covalent bonds in which two pairs of
electrons are shared in each case
 Covalent structures
a) simple molecular
b) giant molecular
Simple molecular structures are simple, formed from only a few atoms. They have
strong covalent bonds between the atoms within a molecule (intramolecular
bonds) but have weak bonds between the molecules (intermolecular bonds).

Examples of simple molecules are iodine, methane, water and ethanol.

intermolecular bonds is weak bond between molecules is known as the van der
Waals’ bond (or force), and these forces increase steadily with the increasing
size of the molecule.

How to know ?
van der Waals’ bond

(intramolecular bonds)
Giant molecular or macromolecular structures contain many hundreds of
thousands of atoms joined by strong covalent bonds.

Examples : diamond, graphite, silicon ( iv ) oxide, plastics

silicon ( iv ) oxide
 Properties of covalent compounds
 As simple molecular substances, they are usually gases,
liquids or solids with low melting and boiling points.
 Giant molecular substances have higher melting points.
 Generally, they do not conduct electricity when molten
or dissolved in water.
Exceptional

 Generally, they do not dissolve in water. Covalent

substances are generally soluble in organic solvents.
Allotropy
 an element can exist in more than one physical form in the
same state it is said to exhibit allotropy (or polymorphism).
 different physical forms is called an allotrope.
examples: sulfur, tin, iron and carbon.

Allotropes of carbon
 It is a non metals
 Allotropes are graphite and diamond.
 Each allotropes exhibits different structure and different
physical properties.
 Physical properties of graphite and diamond

Graphite
Appearance -A dark grey, shiny solid

Electrical conductivity - Conducts electricity

Hardness -A soft material

with a slippery feel

Density/gcm −3 2.25
Physical properties of graphite and diamond

Diamond
Appearance -A colourless transparent crystal which sparkles in light

Electrical conductivity - Does not conducts electricity

Hardness - A Very hard substance

Density/gcm −3 3.51
 Graphite
This is a layer structure (Hexagonal Planar)

each carbon atom is bonded to three others

by strong covalent bonds to form a giant
structure.
Between these layers there are weak forces of
attraction (van der Waals’ forces).

The ‘spare’ (or delocalised) electrons

responsible for conducts electricity.
 Graphene
Discovered in 2004

Fullerene or
bucky ball – C60
Buckminsterfullerene
Diamond
 Each of the carbon atoms in the giant structure is covalently
bonded to four others.
 They form a tetrahedral arrangement similar to that found in
silicon( iv ) oxide.
 Rigid, three-dimensional structure.
 Diamond is made by heating graphite to about 300°C at very
high pressures. Diamond made by this method is known as
industrial diamond.
 Glasses and ceramics
Glasses
 Glasses are irregular giant molecular structures held together by
strong covalent bonds.
 Made by heating silicon( iv ) oxide with other substances.
 Glass is called a supercooled liquid
 Soda glass.
 Uses - bottles and windows
 made by heating a mixture of sand (silicon( iv ) oxide), soda
(sodium carbonate) and lime (calcium oxide)

Pyrex glass.
 Uses - cooking utensils and laboratory glassware.
 It is made by incorporating some boron oxide into the
silicon( iv ) oxide structure

Pyrex glass is tougher than soda glass

Ceramics
 The word ceramic comes from the Greek word keramos
meaning pottery or ‘burnt stuff’.
 Clay dug – kaolinite
 During firing in a furnace, the clay is heated to a
temperature of 1000°C.
 The material produced at the end of the firing, the
ceramic, consists of many minute mineral crystals bonded
together with glass.
 Modern ceramic materials now include zirconium oxide
(ZrO 2 ), titanium carbide (TiC), and silicon nitride (SiN).

 Uses - vehicle components, space technology, house holds,

power supply industry.
Metallic bonding
 The negatively charged electrons attract all the
positive metal ions and bond them together with
strong electrostatic forces of attraction as a single unit.
This is the metallic bond.
Properties of Metals
 High melting point and boiling point
 Conductor of heat and electricity.
 They are malleable and ductile
 High density