METROLOGY

“The branch of knowledge concerned with

measurements”

“The science of measurements”

 CHARACTERISTICS OF MEASURING
INSTRUMENTS
• Accuracy
• Precision
• Calibration
• Magnification
• Sensitivity
• Stability
• Resolution
• Repeatability
• Reproducibility
Calibration

 Calibration of a measuring instrument

It is the process of determining the values of
the quantity being measured corresponding
to a pre-established arbitrary scale.
 Advantages of calibration:
 Assures consistency.
 Ensures measurements (and perhaps products) are
compatible with those made elsewhere.
 Eliminate or reduce bias in the user's measurement
system relative to the reference base.

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 Accuracy vs Precision
• Accuracy is how close an individual value is to the true
or accepted value
• Precision is the consistency of a series of measurements
• Sensitivity
Smallest difference in dimension that an instrument can detect
• Magnification
The ratio of instrument output to the input dimension
• Resolution:
It is the minimum value that can be measured when the
instrument is gradually increased from non-zero value.
• Repeatability:
The degree of closeness with which a given value may be
repeatedly measured under same conditions.
• Reproducibility:
The degree of closeness with which a given value may be
repeatedly measured under different conditions.

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 Measurements can be:

• Accurate and precise (best)

• Accurate and imprecise (user error)
• Inaccurate but precise (instrument error)
• Inaccurate and imprecise
 Some Definitions
• Basic Size: is the size from which limits or
deviations are assigned. Basic sizes, usually
diameters, should be selected from a table of
preferred sizes.
• Deviation: is the difference between the basic size
and the hole or shaft size.
• Upper Deviation: is the difference between the
basic size and the permitted maximum size of the
part.
• Lower Deviation: is the difference between the
basic size and the minimum permitted size of the
part.
 Some Definitions

• Fundamental Deviation: is the deviation closest to the

basic size.
• Zero Line: It is a line along which represents the
basic size and zero (or initial point) for measurement
of upper or lower deviations.
• Shaft and Hole: These terms are used to designate
all the external and internal features of any shape
and not necessarily cylindrical.
• Tolerance: is the difference between the permitted
minimum and maximum sizes of a part.
 Tolerance
• The permissible variation in size or dimension is tolerance
• The difference between the upper limit (high limit) and the lower
limit of a dimension represents the margin for variation to
workmanship, and is called a tolerance zone
• Tolerance can also be defined as the amount by which the job is
allowed to go away from accuracy and perfectness without causing
any functional trouble, when assembled with its mating part and put
into actual service.
EX. A shaft of 25 mm basic size is given as mm. Find the
tolerance.
• Solution
• The maximum permissible size (upper limit) = 25.02 mm and the
minimum permissible size (lower limit) = 24.98 mm
• Then, Tolerance = Upper Limit – Lower Limit
• = 25.02 – 24.98
• = 0.04 mm
Two Ways Of Writing Tolerances
• (a) Unilateral tolerance
• (b) Bilateral tolerance
Unilateral Tolerance
In this system, the dimension of a part is allowed to vary only on one side of the
basic size, i.e. tolerance lies wholly on one side of the basic size either above or
below it
• Bilateral Tolerance
• In this system, the dimension of the part is allowed to vary on
both the sides of the basic size, i.e. the limits of tolerance lie
on either side of the basic size, but may not be necessarily
equally dispose about it
 GAUGES
• Gauges perform an essential services in any
scheme of quantity production on an
interchangeable basis
• A gauge (or Limit Gauge) is a tool or instrument
to measure or compare a component.
• It is employed in the sense of an instrument
which having fixed dimension, is used to
determine whether the size of some
component exceeds or is less than the size of
the gauge itself
15
 GAUGES (cont..)

• Gauges are inspection tool of rigid design,

without a scale, which serves to check the
dimensions of manufacturing parts.
• Gauge do not indicate the actual value of
the inspected part of the component.
• They are used to determine whether the
part is made within the specified limit.
• High carbon steel & alloy tool steels have been
the principal materials for manufacture of
such gauges
16
 Gauges Classifications

(a) Based on the standard and limit

(i) Standard gauges
(ii) Limit gauges or “go” and “not go” gauges
(b) Based on the consistency in manufacturing and inspection
(i) Working gauges
(ii) Inspection gauges
(iii) Reference or master gauges
(c) Depending on the elements to be checked
(i) Gauges for checking holes
(ii) Gauges for checking shafts
(iii) Gauges for checking tapers
(iv) Gauges for checking threads
(v) Gauges for checking forms
(d) According to the shape or purpose for which each is used
(i) Plug
(ii) Ring
(iii) Snap
(iv) Taper
(v) Thread
(vi) Form
(vii) Thickness
Depending on the elements to be checked

Hole Gauge
• It is used to check the dimensions of the hole present in the
element.
Shaft Gauge
• It is used to check the dimensions of the shaft.
Taper Gauge
• It is used to check the dimensions of the tapers.
Thread Gauge
• It is used to check the threading of the element.
Form Gauge
• It is used to check the forms of the elements.
 Limit Gauges
Limit Gauges These are also called ‘go’ and ‘no go’ gauges.
These are made to the limit sizes of the work to be measured. One of the sides or ends
of the gauge is made to correspond to maximum and the other end to the minimum
permissible size. The function of limit gauges is to determine whether the actual
dimensions of the work are within or outside the specified limits.
Limit gauging is adopted for checking parts produced by mass production. It has the
advantage that they can be used by unskilled persons.
Instead of measuring actual dimensions, the conformance of product with tolerance
specifications can be checked by a ‘GO’ and ‘NO GO’ gauges.
A ‘GO’ gauge represents the maximum material condition of the product (i.e.
minimum hole size or maximum shaft size) and conversely a ‘NO GO’ represents the
minimum material condition (i.e. maximum hole size or minimum shaft size)
‘Go gauge’ should pass through or over a part while ‘Not Go gauge’
should not pass through or over the part.
 Plug gauges

Plug gauges are the limit gauges used for checking holes and consist of two cylindrical
wear resistant plugs. The plug made to the lower limit of the hole is known as ‘GO’ end
and this will enter any hole which is not smaller than the lower limit allowed. The plug
made to the upper limit of the hole is known as ‘NO GO’ end and this will not enter any
hole which is smaller than the upper limit allowed. The plugs are arranged on either ends
of a common handle.
Plug gauges are normally double ended for sizes upto 63 mm and for sizes above 63 mm
they are single ended type.
Progressive plug gauges:
For smaller through holes, both GO & NO GO gauges are on the same side separated
by a small distance. After the full length of GO portion enters the hole, further entry is
obstructed by the NO GO portion if the hole is within the tolerance limits.
Ring gauges:
• Ring gauges are used to test external diameters of shafts. They are used in
a similar manner to that of GO & NO GO plug gauges.
• A ring gauge consists of a piece of metal in which a hole of required size is
bored
SNAP (or) GAP GAUGES:
• A snap gauge usually consists of a plate or frame with a parallel faced gap
of the required dimension.
• Snap gauges can be used for both cylindrical as well as non cylindrical
work as compared to ring gauges which are conveniently used only for
cylindrical work.
• Double ended snap gauges can be used for sizes ranging from 3 to 100 mm.
• For sizes above 100 mm upto 250 mm a single ended progressive gauge
may be used.
 Thread or Screw Gauge

• Nuts and internal threads are checked with Plug thread

gauge and screws with Ring thread gauge.
• Limit plug gauges have a long-thread section on the „go‟
and a short-threaded section on the „no go‟ end to
correspond to the minimum and maximum limits
respectively.
• Roller rings gauges, similarly have „go‟ and „no go‟ ends.
They may also be solid and adjustable.
• Roller Snap gauges are often used in production practice for
measuring external threads. They comprise a body, two
pairs „go‟ rollers and two pairs „no go‟ rollers.
• Taper thread gauges are used for checking taper threads.
 THE TAYLOR PRINCIPLE
Taylor’s Principle lays it down:
1. A GO Gauge will check all the dimensions of the
work piece in what is called the maximum metal
condition (indicating the presence of the greatest
amount of material permitted at a prescribed
surface)
2. That NOT GO Gauges shall check only one
dimension of the work piece at a time, for the
minimum metal conditions (indicating the presence
of the least amount of material permitted at a
prescribed surface) size
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 THE TAYLOR PRINCIPLE (Cont..)
• In case of hole, the maximum metal condition
obtains when the hole is machined to the low
limit of size, & minimum metal condition
results when the hole is made to the high limit
of size.
• in case of shaft the limits taken would be
inverse of hole

32
• Gauge Tolerance:
Gauges, like any other jobs require a manufacturing tolerance due to
reasonable imperfections in the workmanship of the gauge maker. The
gauge tolerance should be kept as minimum as possible though high costs
are involved to do so.
The tolerance on the GO & NO GO gauges is usually 10% of the work
tolerance.
 Wear Allowance

• The surface of “Go” gauge is constantly rub against the surface

of the part in inspection and loose their initial size
• The size of plug gauge is reduced but size of snap gauge is
increased.
• 5% wear allowance is provided if working tolerance is greater
than 0.09 mm.
 Slip Gauge/Gauge Block

• Slip gauge / Gauge block / Johansson gauge

• Slip gauges are rectangular blocks of steel that have been
hardened and stabilized by heat treatment.
• Universally accepted end standard of length industry
• Rectangular block of high grade steel with very close
tolerance
• They are ground and lapped to size to very high standards
of accuracy and surface finish.
• They are the most accurate standards of length available
for use in workshops
• Used as a reference for the calibration of measuring
equipment used in machine shops, such as micrometers,
sine bars, calipers etc.
 SLIP GAUGE
• Slip Gauge Classification

1. According to Their Guaranteed Accuracy

2. According to Grades Or Classes Of Slip Gauges

 CLASSIFICATION -ACCORDING TO THEIR
GUARANTEED ACCURACY

• AA -master slip gauges

– accurate up to plus or minus two microns per meter

• A -reference purpose
– accurate up to plus or minus four microns per meter

• B -working slip gauges

– accurate up to plus or minus eight microns per meter
 CLASSIFICATION -ACCORDING TO GRADES OR CLASSES OF
SLIP GAUGES

• Grade 2
– This is the workshop grade. Typical uses include setting up machine tools, positioning
milling cutters and checking mechanical width.
• Grade 1
– Used for more precise work, such as setting up sine bars and sine tables, checking gap
gauges etc.
• Grade 0
– This is more commonly known as the Inspection grade, and its use is confined to tool
room or machine shop inspection.
• Grade 00
– This grade would be kept in the Standard Room and would be kept for work of the
highest precision only. Used for the determination of any errors present in the workshop
or Grade 2 slips.
• Calibration grade
– This is a special grade, with the actual sizes of slips stated or calibrated on a special chart
supplied with the set. This chart must be referred while making up a dimension
 GENERALLY USED SLIP GAUGES- 2 SETS
Normal set (M45)
Range (mm) Step(mm) no of block(mm)
1.001 to 1.009 0.001 9
1.01 to 1.09 0.01 9
1.1 to 1.9 0.1 9
1 to 9 1 9
10 to 90 10 9

SPECIAL SET (M87)

Range Step Pieces
1.001 to 1.009 0.001 9
1.01 to 1.49 0.01 49
0.5 to 9.5 0.5 19
10 to 90 10 9
1.0005
— 1
 USES

• Direct precise measurement, where the accuracy of

the work piece demand it
• Checking accuracy of vernier caliper, micrometer etc
• Setting up a comparator to a specific dimension
• Measure the angle of work piece using sine bar
• To check gap b/w parallel locations such as gap in
gauges or b/w two mating parts
 Wringing

• The term 'wringing' refers to the conditions of

intimate and complete contact between measuring
faces of slip gauge
• The wrung gauge can be handled as a unit,
without the need of clamping all the pieces
together.
• Success of precision measurement depends on
wringing
• The gap b/w two wrung slip are in the order of
0.00635 microns (negligible )
• slip gauges are wrung together by hand through a
combined sliding and twisting motion.
• First the gauge is oscillated slightly with very light
pressure over other gauge so as to detect presence of
any foreign particles between the surfaces.
• One gauge is then placed perpendicular to other using
standard gauging pressure and rotary motion is then
applied until the blocks are lined up.
• In this way air is expelled from between the gauge
faces causing the two blocks to adhere. This adherence
is caused partly by molecular attraction and partly by
atmospheric pressure
Wringing of slip gauge
• For separating two wrung slip gauges,
combined sliding and twisting motion should
be used and no attempt should be made to
separate them by direct pull because
considerable load would have to be applied
which may damage the slip gauges.
 CALIBRATION
• Due to handling in laboratory slip gauge shows
signs of wear ( long period use )
• Checked for regular intervals
• Workshop grade are calibrated by direct
comparison with calibration grade gauge in
comparator.
• Comparator may be mechanical , optical,
electrical.
• Brook-level comparator have been specifically
designed for slip gauges.
 Gauge Materials
Desirable properties of Gauge Materials:
The essential considerations in the selection of
material of gauges are;
1 Hardness to resist wear.
2 Stability to preserve size and shape
3 Corrosion resistance
4 Machinability for obtaining the required degree of
accuracy.
5 Low coefficient of friction of expansion to avoid
temperature effects.
Materials used for gauges:
• High carbon steel: Heat treated Cast steel (0.8-1% carbon) is commonly used
for most gauges.
• Mild Steel: Case hardened on the working surface. It is stable and easily
machinable.
• Case hardened steel: Used for small & medium sized gauges.
• Chromium plated & Hard alloys: Chromium plating imparts hardness,
resistance to abrasion & corrosion. Hard alloys of tungsten carbide may also be
used.
• Cast Iron: Used for bodies of frames of large gauges whose working surfaces
are hard inserts of tool steel or cemented carbides.
• Glass: They are free from corrosive effects due to perspiration from hands. Also
they are not affected by temperature changes.

• Invar: It is a nickel-iron alloy (36% nickel) which has low coefficient of

expansion butnot suitable for usage over long periods
 Manufacture of Gauge blocks

• Gauge blocks are usually made either from hardened alloy tool steels or
from cemented carbides (such as tungsten carbide or tantalum carbide).
Often the carbide has a hardness of 1500 Vickers hardness.
• Long series blocks are made from high-quality steel having cross section
(35 x 9 mm) with holes for clamping two slips together
• .These are also available in carbon steel material. Steel blocks are
hardened and tempered. The hardness is important because it slows down
the gauge's rate of wear during use (this is why other kinds of gauges, such
as pins, thread plugs, and rings, are also hardened.)
• The cutting of the blocks to size is accomplished with grinding followed by
lapping.
• Usually no plating or other coating is involved. Blocks are kept very lightly
oiled, and are stored and used in dry climate-controlled conditions;
unplated, uncoated steel gauge blocks can last for decades without
rusting.
 Manufacturing Gauge Blocks:

• The basic sequence of operations is:

• 1. Machine to basic size
• 2. Harden blocks and stress relieve
• 3. Grind to size
• 4. Lap (8 blocks at a time) to obtain tight
tolerance
 Effect of Temperature
• As gauge blocks change temperature, they also change size. The metals
chosen for gauge blocks do resist this dimensional change, but will
generally undergo some.

• The gauge block sets will carry dimensional readings, as well as rated
temperatures. It is advised that all readings be taken at these temperatures,
but if this is not possible, then some estimate of the dimensional change can
be done.
• Basically this is done by using the difference between specified
measurement temperature, and actual measurement temperature. This
difference is multiplied by the coefficient of linear thermal expansion to
give the change in size. This is obviously for small changes in temperature.

Typical coefficients of linear thermal expansion is:

Steel 9.9 - 13.0 * 10-6 in./(in.°C) (typical is 11.5)
Bronze 16.7 * 10-6 in./(in.°C)
Aluminum 23.0 * 10-6 in./(in.°C)
Chrome carbide 8.4 * * 10-6 in./(in.°C)
Tungsten carbide 4 * * 10-6 in./(in.°C)
 Comparators
Comparators can give precision measurements, with
consistent accuracy by eliminating human error. They
are employed to find out, by how much the dimensions
of the given component differ from that of a known
datum. If the indicated difference is small, a suitable
magnification device is selected to obtain the desired
accuracy of measurements. It is an indirect type of
instrument and used for linear measurement. If the
dimension is less or greater, than the standard, then the
difference will be shown on the dial. It gives only the
difference between actual and standard dimension of
the workpiece.
 • To check the height of the job H2 ,with the standard job of height H1
• Initially, the comparator is adjusted to zero on its dial with a standard job in
position as shown in Figure(a). The reading H1is taken with the help of a
plunger.
• Then the standard job is replaced by the work-piece to be checked and the
reading H2 is taken.
• If H1and H2 are different, then the change i~ the dimension will be shown
on the dial of the comparator.
• Thus difference is then magnified 1000 to 3000 X to get the clear variation
in the standard and actual job.

In short, Comparator is a device which

(1) Picks up small variations in dimensions.
(2) Magnifies it.
(3) Displays it by using indicating devices, by which comparison can be made with
some
standard value.
 Characteristics of Good Comparators:

1. It should be compact.
2. It should be easy to handle.
3. It should give quick response or quick result.
4. It should be reliable, while in use.
5. There should be no effects of environment on the comparator.
6. Its weight must be less.
7. It must be cheaper.
8. It must be easily available in the market.
9. It should be sensitive as per the requirement.
10. The design should be robust.
11. It should be linear in scale so that it is easy to read and get uniform response.
12. It should have less maintenance.
13. It should have hard contact point, with long life.
14. It should be free from backlash and wear.
Uses of Comparators
The various ways in which the comparators can be used
are as follows:
1. In mass production, where components are to be
checked at a very fast rate.
2. As laboratory standards from which working or
inspection gauges are set and correlated.
3. For inspecting newly purchased gauges.
4. Attached with some machines, comparators can be
used as working gauges to prevent work spoilage and
to maintain required tolerances at all stages of
manufacturing.
5. In selective assembly of parts, where parts are graded
in three or more groups depending upon their
tolerances.
 Classification

1. Mechanical Comparator: It works on gears pinions,

linkages, levers, springs etc.
2. Pneumatic Comparator: Pneumatic comparator works
by using high pressure air, valves, back pressure etc.
3. Optical Comparator: Optical comparator works by using
lens, mirrors, light source etc.
4. Electrical Comparator: Works by using step up, step
down transformers.
5. Electronic Comparator: It works by using amplifier,
digital signal etc.
6. Combined Comparator: The combination of any two of
the above types can give the best result.
 Johansson Mikrokator :
This comparator was developed by C.F. Johansson.
Construction:
The method of mechanical magnification is shown in Figure. It employs a twisted
metal strip. Any pull on the strip causes the centre of the strip to rotate. A very light
pointer made of glass tube is attached to the centre of the twisted metal strip. The
measuring plunger is on the slit washer and transmits its motion through the bell
crank lever to the twisted metal strip. The other end of the twisted metal strip is
fastened to the cantilever strip. The overhanging length of the cantilever strip can be
varied to adjust the magnification of the instrument. The longer the length of the
cantilever, the more it will deflect under the pull of the twisted metal strip and less
rotation of the pointer is obtained.
When the plunger moves by a small distance in upward direction the bell crank lever
turns to the right hand side. This exerts a force on the twisted strip and it causes a change
in its length by making it further twist or untwist. Hence the pointer at the centre rotates
by some amount. Magnification up to 5000X can be obtained by this comparator
 Sigma Comparator
• The plunger is attached to a bar which is supported between the
bending plates at the top and bottom portion as shown in Figure
• The bar is restricted to move in the vertical direction. A knife edge is
fixed to the bar. The knife edge is attached to the sapphire plate
which is attached to the moving block.
• The knife edge extorts a force on the moving block through
sapphire plate. Moving block is attached to the fixed block with the
help of crossed strips as shown in Figure . When the force is applied
on the moving block, it will give an angular deflection. A Y-arm
which is attached to the moving block transmits the rotary motion
to the driving drum of radius r.
• This deflects the pointer and then the reading is noted.
Sigma Comparator
Sigma Comparator
Advantages of Mechanical Comparators
i. These are usually cheaper in comparison to other devices of amplifying.
ii. These do not require any external supply such as electricity or air and as such the
variations in outside supplies do not affect the accuracy.
iii. Usually the mechanical comparators have linear scale which is easily understood.
iv. These are usually robust and compact and easy to handle.
v. For ordinary workshop conditions, these are suitable and being portable can be issued
from a store
Disadvantages
i. The mechanical comparators have got more moving parts than other types. Due to
more moving parts, the friction is more and ultimately the accuracy is less.
ii. Any slackness in moving parts reduces the accuracy considerably.
iii. The mechanism has more inertia and this may cause the instruments to be sensitive
vibration.
iv. The range of the instrument is limited as the pointer moves over a fixed scale.
v. Error due to parallax is possible as the moving pointer moves over a fixed scale.
 Mechanical Optical Comparator

In mechanical optical comparators small displacements of the

measuring plunger are amplified first by a mechanical system
consisting of pivoted levers. The amplified mechanical
movement is further amplified by a simple optical system
involving the projection of an image. The usual arrangement
employed is such that the mechanical system causes a plane
reflector to tilt about an axis and the image of an index is
projected on a scale on the inner surface of a ground-glass
screen. Optical magnification provides high degree of
measuring precision due to reduction of moving members
and better wear resistance qualities. Optical magnification is
also free from friction, bending, wear etc.
Mechanical Optical Comparator
Advantages of Optical Comparators:
i. It has small number of moving parts and hence a higher accuracy.
ii. In the optical comparators, the scale can be made to move past a
datum line and thus have high range and no parallax errors.
iii. It has very high magnification.
iv. Optical lever is weightless.
Disadvantages:
i. As the instrument has high magnification, heat from the lamp,
transformer etc. may cause the setting to drift.
ii. An electrical supply is necessary.
iii. The apparatus is usually large and expensive.
iv. When the scale is projected on a screen, then it is essential to use the
instrument in a dark room in order to take the readings easily.
v. The instruments in which the scale is viewed through the eyepiece of
a microscope are not convenient for continuous use.
 Pneumatic Comparators (Solex Gauge)
Principle:
It works on the principle of pressure difference generated by the air flow. Air is
supplied at constant pressure through the orifice and the air escapes in the form of
jets through a restricted space which exerts a back pressure. The variation in the back
pressure is then used to find the dimensions of a component.
Working:
As shown in Figure the air is compressed in the compressor at high pressure which is
equal to Water head H. The excess air escapes in the form of bubbles. Then the
metric amount of air is passed through the orifice at the constant pressure. Due to
restricted area, at A1 position, the back pressure is generated by the head of water
displaced in the manometer tube. To determine the roundness of the job, the job is
rotated along the jet axis, if no variation in the pressure reading is obtained then we
can say that the job is perfectly circular at position A1.
Then the same procedure is repeated at various positions A2, A3, A4,
position and variation in the pressure reading is found out. Also the diameter is
measured at position A1 corresponding to the portion against two jets and diameter is
also measured at various position along the length of the bore.Any variation in the
dimension changes the value of h, e.g. Change in dimension of
0.002 mm changes the value of h from 3 to 20 mm. Moderate and constant supply
pressure is required to have the high sensitivity of the instrument.lso measured at
various position along the length of the bore
Pneumatic Comparators (Solex Gauge)
Advantages:
1. It is cheaper, simple to operate and the cost is low.
2. It is free from mechanical hysteresis and wear.
3. The magnification can be obtained as high as 10,000 X.
4. The gauging member is not in direct contact with the work.
5. Indicating and measuring is done at two different places.
6. Tapers and ovality can be easily detected.
7. The method is self cleaning due to continuous flow of air through the jets and
this
makes the method ideal to be used on shop floor for online controls.
Disadvantages:
1. They are very sensitive to temperature and humidity changes.
2. The accuracy may be influenced by the surface roughness of the component
being
checked.
3. Different gauging heads are needed for different jobs.
4. Auxiliary equipments such as air filters, pressure gauges and regulators are
needed.
5. Non-uniformity of scale is a peculiar aspect of air gauging as the variation of
back
pressure is linear, over only a small range of the orifice size variation.
Advantages of Pneumatic Comparators:
i. The gauging member does not come into contact with the part to be measured and
hence practically no wear takes place on the gauging member.
ii. It has usually very small number of moving parts and in some cases none. Thus the
accuracy is more due to less friction and less inertia.
iii. Measuring pressure is very small and the jet of air helps in cleaning the dust, if any,
from the part to be measured.
iv. It is possible to have very high magnification.
v. The indicating instrument can be remote from the measuring unit.
vi. It is very suitable device for measuring diameter of holes where the diameter is
small compared with the length.
vii. It is probably the best method for determining the ovality and taperness of the
circular bores.
Disadvantages:
i. It requires elaborate auxiliary equipment such as accurate pressure regulator.
ii. The scale is generally not uniform.
iii. When indicating device is the glass tube, then high magnification is necessary in
order to avoid the meniscus errors.
iv. The apparatus is not easily portable and is rather elaborate for many industrial
applications.
v. Different gauging heads are required for different dimensions.
 SINE BAR
Sine bars are always used along with slip
gauges as a device for the measurement of
angles very precisely.
They are used to
1) Measure angles very accurately.
2) Locate the work piece to a given angle with
very high precision.
Generally, sine bars are made from high
carbon, high chromium, and corrosion
resistant steel. These materials are highly
hardened, ground and stabilized.
 SINE BAR
• In sine bars, two cylinders of equal diameter are
attached at lie ends with its axes are mutually parallel to
each other.
• They are also at equal distance from the upper surface
of the sine bar mostly the distance between the axes of
two cylinders is 100mm, 200mm or 300mm.
• The working surfaces of the rollers are finished to 0.2
μm R value.
• The cylindrical holes are provided to reduce the weight
of the sine bar
• The working of sine bar is based on
trigonometry principle
• To measure the angle of a given specimen, one
roller of the sine bar is placed on the surface
plate and another one roller is placed over the
surface of slip gauges.
• Now, ‘h be the height of the slip gauges and ‘L’
be the distance between roller centers, then the
angle is calculated
• USE OF SINEBAR:
• (1,) Locating any’ work to a given angle
Sine Bars

81
Advantages of sine bar:
1. It is used for accurate and precise angular measurement.
2. It is available easily.
3. It is cheap.
Disadvantages:
1. The application is limited for a fixed center distance
between two plugs or rollers.
2. It is difficult to handle and position the slip gauges.
3. If the angle exceeds 45°, sine bars are impracticable and
inaccurate.
4. Large angular error may results due to slight error in sine
bar.
Sources of error in sine bars:
The different sources of errors are listed below:
1)Error in distance between roller centers.
2)Error in slip gauge combination.
3)Error in checking of parallelism.
4)Error in equality of size of rollers and
cylindricity.
5)Error in parallelism of roller axes with each
other.
6)Error in flatness of the upper surface of sine
bar.
 Sine plate or bar

Typically 10” between hinge rod and gauge block rod

Calculate sine of angle, multiply by 10 and put gauge block stack under
gauge block rod
Can theoretically set angle to 2 seconds of arc with .0001” blocks
Sine Centers:
It is the extension of sine bars where two ends are provided on which centers can be
clamped, as shown in Figure. These are useful for testing of conical work centered at
each end, up to 60°. The centers ensure correct alignment of the work piece. The
procedure of setting is the same as for sine bar. The dial indicator is moved on to the
job till the reading is same at the extreme position. The necessary arrangement is
made in the slip gauge height and the angle is calculated as θ = Sin-1 (h/L)
 Clinometer

A clinometer is a special case of the application of spirit level. In clinometer, the spirit
level is mounted on a rotary member carried in a housing. One face of the housing forms the
base of the instrument. On the housing, there is a circular scale. The angle of inclination of
the rotary member carrying the level relative to its. base can be measured by this circular
scale. The clinometer mainly used to determine the included angle of two adjacent faces of
workpiece. Thus for this purpose, the instrument base is placed on one face and the rotary
body adjusted till zero reading of the bubble is obtained. The angle of rotation is then noted
on the circular scale against the index. A second reading is then taken in the similar manner
on the second face of workpiece. The included angle between the faces is then the difference
between the two readings.
Clinometers are also used for checking angular faces, and relief angles on large
cutting tools and milling cutter inserts.
These can also be used for setting inclinable table on jig boring; machines and angular
work on grinding machines etc.
• Autocollimator is essentially an infinity telescope and a
collimator combined into one instrument. The principle on
which this instrument works is given below. O is a point
source of light placed at the principal focus of a collimating
lens in Fig.The rays of light from O incident on the lens will
now travel as a parallel beam of light. If this beam now strikes
a plane reflector which is normal to the optical axis, it will be
reflected back along its own path and refocused at the same
point O.
• If the plane reflector be now tilted through a small angle 0,
then parallel beam will be deflected through twice this angle,
and will be brought to focus at O’ in the same plane at a
distance x from O. Obviously OO’=x=2θ.f, where f is the focal
length of the lens. For high sensitivity, i.e., for large value of x
for a small angular deviation θ, a long focal length is required.
f
 Optical Flat

1. Optical flat are flat lenses, made from quartz, having a very
accurate surface to transmit light.
2. They are used in interferometers, for testing plane surfaces.
3. The diameter of an optical flat varies from 50 to 250mm and
thickness varies from 12 to 25 mm.
4. Optical flats are made in a range of sizes and shapes.
5. The flats are available with a coated surface.
6. The coating is a thin film, usually titanium oxide, applied on
the surface to reduce the light lost by reflection.
7. The coating is so thin that it does not affect the position of
the fringe bands, but a coated flat
• let the number of fringes on the reference block be N over a
width of l mm. If the distance between the two slip gauges is L
and λ is the wavelength of the monochromatic light source,
then the difference in height h is given by the following
relation:
Example 1 Figure illustrates the use of an optical flat to check the height of the slip
gauge against a standard gauge of 20 mm height. The wavelength of a cadmium light
source is 0.509 μm. If the number of fringes on a gauge width of 15 mm is 10 and the
distance between the two blocks is 30 mm, calculate the true height of the gauge
being inspected.
Solution
The difference in height h is given by the following equation:

Therefore, h = 0.509 × 30 × 10 1000 / 2 × 15 = 0.00509 mm or 5.09 μm

Abbe’s Alignment Principle:

Abbe’s Alignment Principle “ The axis or line of measurement should coincide with
the axis of measuring instrument or line of the measuring scale”

The length recorded will be more than true length. This error is called “cosine error”

True length = L cos o

Cosine error occur in dial gauge, if the axis of pointer is not along the direction of
measurement of work
 Type of Assemblies

1. Trial and Error

2. Interchangeable assembly

3. Selective Assembly
 1. Trial & Error Assembly

• Adopted when small number of similar

assemblies are needed.

• Here, one part is made to it’s nominal size and

the other part is machined with small amount
at a time by trial an error until they fit in
required manner.
 2. Interchangeable Assembly
• In case of mass production Trial & Error assembly type
is uneconomical. Here machining is done on different
machines by different operators at different shifts.
• In this type strict control is exercised and parts are
manufactured within specified tolerance limits.
• Eg: suppose clearance fit for mating part with hole.
Hole= 25(-0.00mm/+0.04)
Shaft=25(-0.04mm/-0.02)
In this case any set of random hole and shaft will
fit.
 3.Selective Assembly

• In case of mass production it is not economical to

manufacture parts to the required high degree of
accuracy so as to make them interchangeable.
• Customer not only needs quality and precision
but also he wants product at economical price.
• At some extra cost of inspection and material
handling by using selective assembly parts can be
manufactured to a wider tolerance.
• Selective assembly results in complete
production against defective assemblies and
reduces manufacturing costs, since parts may
be reduced with wider tolerances.
• Eg: Assembly of piston with cylinder bores
Bore size: 50(+/-0.02mm) piston:49.88(+/-
0.02mm)
Selective aseembly:
• Bore: 49.98 50.00 50.02 mm
• Piston: 49.86 49.88 49.90 mm
STANDARDS OF MEASUREMENT:‐
The two standards of Measurement are –
• English system‐ yard
• Metric system‐ metre
The various standards known for linear
measurement are –
• LINE STANDARD
• END STANDARD
• WAVELENGTH STANDARD
LINE STANDARD
When length is expressed as a distance between
two parallel lines engraved across the standard
it is called a line standard e.g.Ruler with its
division.
END STANDARD
In this length is expressed as a distance between
two flat parallel surfaces e.g. slip gauges,end of
micrometer anvil etc.
WAVELENGTH STANDARD
In this,wavelength of pure monochromatic light
is used to express length.Wavelength of red
radiation of cadmium is used.This is not
influenced by variation of environmental
conditions like temp,pressure humidity,ageing
etc.
 Expressions
• Accuracy
– % error = True value – measured value X 100%
True value
Precision
– Expression of variability
– Take the mean (average)
– Calculate how much each measurement deviates
from mean
– Take an average of the deviation, so it is the
average deviation from the mean
 Measuring Instruments
• Measuring instruments are measuring devices that
transform the measured quantity into an
information, either analog or digital.

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 Measuring Instruments (Cont.)
 The functions of the measuring instruments are:
1. Indicating function
2. Recording function
3. Controlling function
 The applications of the measuring
instruments are:
1. Monitoring of processes and operations
2. Control of process
3. Experimental engineering analysis

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 Measuring Instruments Types
 Measuring Instruments Types:
1. Angle measuring Instruments: e.g. Angle gauges; Divided
scales; Sine bar with slip gauges; Autocollimator; and Tool Maker
Microscope.
2. Length measuring Instruments: ex: Steel rule; Caliper;
Micrometer; and comparators.
3. Instruments for surface finish: surface roughness
measurements.
4. Instruments for deviations: Coordinate Measuring Machine
(CMM).

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 Measurements Errors
Measurements Errors :
Is the difference between the true value of the size and the value
found by measurement.
Errors pertains to measurement not to an
instrument.
Error = True Size – Actual Size
True Size: is the theoretical size obtained through measurement.
This type of size is free from any type of error. It is the guide for
measuring many properties such as accuracy of an instrument.
Actual Size: is a measured size with permissible error. It refers to the
minimum acceptable size of a sample.

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 Measurements Errors (cont.)
• There are two general categories of error:
systematic (or bias) errors and random (or
precision) errors.

Errors
• Systematic
• Random

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 Systematic Errors
• Systematic errors (also called bias errors)
They are consistent, repeatable errors. For example, suppose the
first two millimeters of a ruler are worn off, and the user is
not aware of it. Everything he or she measures will be too
short by two millimeters – a systematic error.

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 Systematic Errors Sources
Systematic errors arise for many reasons. Here are just a few:
Calibration Errors: due to nonlinearity or errors in the calibration
method.
Loading or Intrusion Errors: the sensor may actually change the
very thing it is trying to measure.
Spatial Errors: arise when a quantity varies in space, but a
measurement is taken only at one location (e.g. temperature in a
room - usually the top of a room is warmer than the bottom).
Human Errors: arise if a person consistently reads a scale on the
low side, for example.
Defective Equipment Errors: arise if the instrument consistently
reads too high or too low due to some internal problem or
damage.
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 Random Errors
• Random errors
They are unrepeatable, inconsistent errors, resulting in
scatter in the output data.
The random error of one data point is defined as the
reading minus the average of readings.

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 Other Sources of Errors
There are many other errors, which all have technical names, as
defined here:
• Zero Error: The instrument does not read zero when the input is
zero. Zero error is a type of bias error that offsets all
measurements taken by the instrument, but can usually be
corrected by some kind of zero offset adjustment.
• Linearity Error: The output deviates from the calibrated linear
relationship between the input and the output. Linearity error is a
type of bias error, but unlike zero error, the degree of error varies
with the magnitude of the reading.

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 Other Sources of Errors (Cont.)
• Sensitivity Error: The slope of the output vs. input curve is not
calibrated exactly in the first place. Since this affects all
readings by the instrument, this is a type of systematic or bias
error.
• Resolution Error: The output precision is limited to discrete
steps (e.g., if one reads to the nearest millimeter on a ruler,
the resolution error is around +/- 1 mm). Resolution error is a
type of random or precision error.

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 Other Sources of Errors (Cont.)
• Hysteresis Error: The output is different, depending on
whether the input is increasing or decreasing at the time of
measurement. This is a separate error from instrument
repeatability error.
• Instrument Repeatability Error: The instrument gives a
different output, when the input returns to the same value.
The reasons for the differences and the procedure to get to
that value are usually random, so instrument repeatability
error is a type of random error.

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 Other Sources of Errors (Cont.)
 Drift Error: The output changes (drifts) from its correct value,
even though the input remains constant. Drift error can often
be seen in the zero reading, which may fluctuate randomly
due to electrical noise and other random causes, or it can
drift higher or lower (zero drift) due to nonrandom causes,
such as a slow increase in air temperature in the room. Thus,
drift error can be either random or systematic.
 Parallax: This error can occur whenever there is some
distance between the measuring scale and the indicator used
to obtain a measurement. If the observer's eye is not
squarely aligned with the pointer and scale, the reading may
be too high or low (some analog meters have mirrors to help
with this alignment).

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 Other Sources of Errors (Cont.)
• Environmental factors: Be aware of errors introduced by your
immediate working environment. You may need to take
account for or protect your experiment from vibrations,
drafts, changes in temperature, electronic noise or other
effects from nearby apparatus.
• Reading Error: describes such factors as parallax,
interpolation, or optical resolution.
• Loading Error: results from the change of the measurement
instrument when it is being used.
• Effect of support.
• Dirt.

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