Ecole Nationale des Sciences et Technologies Avancées à Borj Cédria

Fluid Mechanics

Revision – Mechanics of Viscous Fluids

2018-2019

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Inroduction- Flow development inside a pipe

ReD < 2000 ReD > 4000

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Total head
 In hydraulic applications, energy values are often converted into units of
energy per unit weight of fluid, resulting in units of length.

Pipe
D centerline
RR

L
 When using these length equivalents, the energy of the system is expressed
in terms of ‘head.’ The total head for is then

Where is pressure head, is velocity head and z is the elevation head

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Head losses
Energy equation for inclined pipe (general case)

Where
hA added head
hR substracted head and
hL lost head

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Head losses
 In the absence of added and substructed energy

 Continuity: ρ1V1A1 = ρ2V2A2

ρ and A are constants V1 = V2

Then

For z1= z2

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Head losses
 Energy loss due to the friction is usually represented by the
drop of pressure in the direction of flow then ΔP = ?
We have

It has been shown in laminar flow that the pressure drop along
the length L, in a pipe of radius r
8𝝁𝑳
∆𝒑 = 4
𝑸
𝝅𝒓

Then the friction causes a pressure drop which means a loss of

the energy

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Head losses
 While a liquid is flowing in a duct, frictions occur between the
various layers of liquid or against the walls of the pipe or when
passing through singularities (elbows, valves...). These frictions
therefore result in a loss of fluid energy, namely head losses.
 The magnitude of the shear stress, created due to the friction,
is dependent upon the properties of the fluid, the speed at which it
is moving, the internal roughness of the pipe, the length and
diameter of pipe.
 Friction losses, also known as major losses, is a primary
cause of energy loss in a pipeline system.
 Energy losses due to the changes in the flow area or direction,
caused by the presence of the components (valves, bends...) often
found in hydraulic circuits, are known as minor losses 7
Major losses
 The major head loss in a cylindrical duct or a pipe is
expressed as follows:

This equation is known as Darcy-Weisbach (D-W) equation.

Where f is the friction coefficient (major head losses coefficient
without dimension), D is the diameter of the conduct and L is the
length of the conduct.
 The Determination of the major head losses coefficient, f,
requires knowledge of the flow regime (laminar, transitional or
turbulent) in addition f depends on several parameters such as,
the geometry of the conduct, nature of the cross section (circular,
annular, rectangular...), the state of the pipe surface defined by the
relative roughness...
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Friction coefficient
 The coefficient of major head loss for a pipe of circular cross-
section is expressed in terms of ReD and depends on the flow
regime :
– Laminar flow regime:

– Turbulent flow regime: Colebrook formula is the most

commonly used and it is written as follows:

f is the friction coefficient and depends on the surface state of

the pipe (roughness ε). To find f , we need to use iteration

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f

B curve: Blasius equation for

smooth pipes, valid for :
4000 < Re < 105

-¼
f smooth = 0.316 Re
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Typical material Roughness

Material Roughness, ε (mm)

Glass smooth
Brass, new 0.002
Concrete
Smoothed 0.04
Rough 2.0
Iron
Cast, new 0.26
Galvanised, new 0.15
Wrought, new 0.046
Steel
Commercial, new 0.046
Riveted 3
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 Equivalent Hydraulic Diameter
In the case of a conduct with non circular cross section or
non filled circular section we use the hydraulic diameter:

Examples:
the cross section of the liquid is H
h
and the perimeter wetted by the liquid is

L
Then
Dh = ? D
h
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Minor losses - Local losses
 In addition to head loss due to friction, there are always other
head losses due to the components often encountered in the
hydraulic circuits (pipe expansions and contractions, bends,
valves, and other pipe fittings…).

 These losses are usually known as minor losses (hLm).

 Caused by flow separation, turbulence and mechanical energy

losses.

 Losses happen right downstream of the component.

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Hydraulic components

 Some Hydraulic components responsible for minor losses

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Minor losses
 The minor head losses due to components found in a conduct
is calculated as follows:

where K is the coefficient of minor head losses (dimensionless)

depending on the type of component.

 Another approach is to use an “equivalent length” of pipe, that

would give an equivalent loss

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Minor losses
In this case the component is replaced by a straight
pipe that gives the same pressure loss

 Then

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Minor losses
 Losses due to pipe fittings
Type K

(I) Exit (pipe to tank) 1.0

Entrance (tank to pipe) 0.5

90 elbow 0.9

where hLm= minor loss
K = minor loss coefficient 45 elbow 0.4

V = mean flow velocity

T-junction 1.8

Gate valve 0.25 - 25

Typical values of K
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Minor losses
 Sudden Enlargement

(Ia)

Da/Db 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

K 1.00 0.87 0.70 0.41 0.15

Typical values of K
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Minor losses
 Sudden Contraction

(Ib)

Db/Da 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

K 0.5 0.49 0.42 0.27 0.20 0.0

Typical values of K

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Total head losses
Losses in the system are the sum of losses due to
friction and minor losses:

if you use the equivalent length for local losses, Leq is
included in L.
If the components are too close to each other, losses
do not add up linearly

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Basic head loss calculation
 Given L, D, Q (or V )

1. Look up fluid properties ρ, μ

2. Compute ReD to determine whether the flow is laminar or
turbulent
3. If turbulent, look up ε for the pipe material
4. Use the Colebrook equation or the Moody chart to find f
5. Use the Darcy-Weisbach equation to compute hL
6. Use the steady-flow energy equation to find other terms, e.g.
pressure drop

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Energy added and extracted
 There are many occasions when energy needs to be added to a
hydraulic system to overcome elevation differences, friction
losses and minor losses.
A pump is a common device to which mechanical energy is
applied and transferred to oil as total head of the pump.
The head added is called pump head (Hp), and is a function of
flow rate through the pump.
On the other hand, fluid motor or turbines are common
examples of devices that extract energy from a fluid, and the
head extracted is called head of turbine (Ht), deliver it in a form
of work.

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Energy added and extracted
 Denoting the head loss due to friction and minor losses as HL, and the
external energy added/extracted by HE, then the Bernoulli equation may be
rewritten as

 HE = Hp (positive for pump) when the head is added to the fluid, or HE = Ht

(negative for turbine) when the head is extracted from the fluid. It is often
necessary to convert the total power (P) of a pump or turbine to HE or vice
versa.
 The relationship between P and HE is given by the following
P = gQHE
 In a pump HE = HP, the value is positive since power is added to the fluid.
In a turbine, HE = Ht is negative and power is extracted from the flow.

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Energy added and extracted
 The term efficiency is used to denote the ratio of the power delivered by the pump to
the fluid to the power supplied to the pump.
 Because of energy loses due to mechanical friction in pump components, fluid
friction in the pump, and excessive fluid turbulence in the pump, not all of the input
power is delivered to the fluid. Therefore, the efficiency of a pump can be written
as;

 The value of p is less than 1.0.

 Similarly, energy losses in a turbine are produced by mechanical and fluid friction.
Therefore, not all the power delivered to the motor is ultimately converted to power
output from the device. The efficiency of a turbine is defined as;

 Here again, the value of t is less than 1.0.

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