ELECTROMAGNETIC METHODS

(EM)
• Measurement of varying electromagnetic fields
• Induced by transmitter antennas, recorded by receiver
antennas
• Alternative measurement of subsurface conductivity
• Advantage is no contact electrodes are required
• EM surveys are faster, and can be carried out from
aircraft
• Useful in a wide range of applications:
• Mineral prospecting
• Mapping of faults, shear zones
• Detection/location of underground pipes, cables
• Mapping of conductive contaminants
• Mapping of (conductive) clays in agricultural studies
Subsurface eddy currents then
generate a secondary field (S),
finally both P and S are measured
by the receiver.
Basic principle:
Transmitter current (Ip)
generates primary field (P),
which generates ground
emf, leading to subsurface
“eddy” currents.
 SOURCES OF TIME-VARYING EM FIELDS

Natural sources (“Magneto-telluric fields”, or MT)

• Interaction of solar wind with ionosphere
• From 10-5 Hz, up to 20 kHz
• Low MT frequencies (.001 Hz to 1 Hz) used to
investigate upper mantle and lower crust
• “Audio-magnetotelluric” (AMT) (1-20 kHz) to
investigate to 1 – 2 km depth
• Good at detecting/resolving conductive layers
• Poor where shallow section is very conductive
Controlled MT source:

• Magnetotelluric signal is weak at certain

frequencies, no control on direction

• Controlled source AMT (CSAMT) uses electric

field bipolar transmitter, 10 m to 30 m in length
CSAMT (Controlled source) systems
• Time-varying primary EM fields
generated by currents in a transmitter
loop
• Receiver coil is physically separated 1
m – several hundred metres
• Reference signal provided to receiver
by cable link
• Ground systems, airborne systems
differ only in scale, principles are the
same
CONTOH :
THEORY
EM THEORY: BASIC QUANTITIES
EM THEORY: TIME VARYING
RELATIONSHIPS

Time varying terms (these

were assumed zero in the
earlier part of this course)
Substituting:

Basic equations for

propagation of EM
fields
 “FREQUENCY DOMAIN” EM: DRIVE THE
TRANSMITTER WITH A SINGLE
FREQUENCY

Current in transmitter:

Primary magnetic field:

Subsurface “emf”
(voltage):
 “FREQUENCY DOMAIN” EM

Subsurface “emf”
(voltage):
Important: The “flux” Φ is a measure of the magnetic field passing through
a given cross sectional area – this will be large when B is perpendicular to
the element of area
Since B is proportional to H, we may conclude that

“Phase
shift”
 Subsurface “emf”:
“Phase
shift”

Subsurface “eddy” currents: Will only flow if there is an equivalent electric

circuit. Since rocks are both resistive and have self-inductance, a reasonable
model is:

This is a differential equation for I(t), which can be solved for a given ε(t)
This is a differential equation for I(t), which can be solved for a given ε(t)

For , the solution to the differential equation is

“Phase
shift”

where

is the “induction number”

 Summarizing:

The total phase difference between the primary and secondary field is