UNIT 3

OUTLINE:
 Sets and Subsets
 Set Operations
 the Laws of Set Theory
 Counting and Venn Diagrams.
 A First Word on Probability.
 The Axioms of Probability.
 Self Learning Exercise: Conditional Probability:
Independence.
3.1 Sets and Subsets
A well-defined collection of objects (elements or members)
e.g., set of even numbers

Terminologies:
finite sets, infinite sets, cardinality of a set, subset

Representing a set
A={1,3,5,7,9} 1  A,1  B ,1  C
B={x|x is odd}
C={1,3,5,7,9,...}
cardinality of A=5 (|A|=5)
3.1 Sets and Subsets

subsets A  B  x[ x  A  x  B ]
A  B  x[ x  A  x  B ]
 x[ ( x  A)  x  B )]
 x[ x  A  x  B ]
set equality C  D  ( C  D)  ( D  C )
C  D  (C  D  D  C )
 C  D D  C
Subset and proper subset
A is a proper subset of B. A B
C is a subset of B.
CB
Example
Theorem 1
Example
3.1 Sets and Subsets

null set or empty set : {}, 

universal set, universe: U

power set of A: the set of all subsets of A

A={1,2}, P(A)={, {1}, {2}, {1,2}}

If |A|=n, then |P(A)|=2n.

Theorem 2
3.1 Sets and Subsets

common notations

(a) Z=the set of integers={0,1,-1,2,-1,3,-3,...}

(b) N=the set of nonnegative integers or natural numbers
(c) Z+=the set of positive integers
(d) Q=the set of rational numbers={a/b| a,b is integer, b not zero}
(e) Q+=the set of positive rational numbers
(f) Q*=the set of nonzero rational numbers
(g) R=the set of real numbers
(h) R+=the set of positive real numbers
(i) R*=the set of nonzero real numbers
(j) C=the set of complex numbers
3.1 Sets and Subsets

common notations

(k) C*=the set of nonzero complex numbers

(l) For any n in Z+, Zn={0,1,2,3,...,n-1}
(m) For real numbers a,b with a<b,

[ a, b]  {x  R | a  x  b} closed interval

(a, b)  {x  R | a  x  b} open interval

[a, b)  {x  R | a  x  b}
half-open interval
(a, b]  {x  R | a  x  b}
 3.2 Set Operations and the Laws of Set Theory

Def. 3.5 For A,B U

union
a) A  B  {x | x  A  x  B}
intersection
b) A  B  {x | x  A  x  B}
c) AB  {x | x  A  B  x  A  B} symmetric difference

Def.3.6 mutually disjoint A B  

Def 3.7 complement A  U  A  {x | x U  x  A}
Def 3.8 relative complement of A in B
B  A  {x | x  B  x  A}
Theorem 3
Theorem 4
For any universe U and any set A,B in U, the following
statements are equivalent:

a) A B
b) A B  B reasoning process
c) A B  A
(a)  (b), (b)  (c),
d) B A
(c)  (d), and (d)  (a)
 3.2 Set Operations and the Laws of Set Theory
The Laws of Set Theory

(1) A  A Law of Double Complement

(2) A  B  A  B Demorgan' s Laws
A B  A B
(3) A  B  B  A Commutative Laws
A B  B  A
(4) A  ( B  C )  ( A  B )  C Associative Laws
A  ( B  C )  ( A  B)  C
(5) A  ( B  C )  ( A  B )  ( A  C ) Distributive Laws
A  ( B  C )  ( A  B)  ( A  C )
3.2 Set Operations and the Laws of Set Theory

The Laws of Set Theory

(6) A  A  A, A  A  A Idempotent Laws

(7) A    A, A  U  A Identity Laws
(8) A  A  U , A  A   Inverse Laws
(9) A  U  U , A   =  Domination Laws
(10) A  ( A  B )  A Absorption Laws
A( A B )  A
 3.2 Set Operations and the Laws of Set Theory

s dual of s (sd)

 U
U 
 
 

Theorem 3.5 (The Principle of Duality) Let s denote a theorem

dealing with the equality of two set expressions. Then sd is also
a theorem.
Example
 3.2 Set Operations and the Laws of Set Theory

Ex. 3.17 What is the dual of A  B ?

Since A  B  A  B  B . The dual of A  B is the dual of

A  B  B , which is A  B  B . That is, B  A.
Problem
Negate A  B.
A  B  {x | x  A  x  B}  A  B
 A B  A B  A B
Venn diagram A B

U
A
A A B
Proof using Venn diagram
Proof using Membership Table
 3.3 Counting and Venn Diagrams

Ex. 3.23. In a class of 50 college freshmen, 30 are studying

BASIC, 25 studying PASCAL, and 10 are studying both. How
many freshmen are studying either computer language?

| A  B |  | A| | B | | A  B |
 Example
Ex 3.24. Defect types of an AND gate:
D1: first input stuck at 0
D2: second input stuck at 0
D3: output stuck at 1
Given 100 samples
set A: with D1
set B: with D2
set C: with D3
with |A|=23, |B|=26, |C|=30,
| A  B |  7, | A  C |  8, | B  C |  10,
| A B  C|  3
, how many samples have at least one defect?
How many have no defect?
Solution

| A  B  C |  | A| | B | | C | | A  B |
 | A  C | | B  C | | A  B  C |
Ans:57 & 43
Definition
Exercise problems: 3.3

Ans: 55
Ans: 40
Ans: a)12 b)2 c)16
Problem :
A survey of 500 television viewers of a sports channel
produced the following information: 285 watch
cricket, 195 watch hockey, 115 watch football, 45 watch
cricket and football, 70 watch cricket and hockey, 50
watch hockey and football and 50 do not watch any of
the three kind.
(i) How many viewers in the survey watch all three
kinds of games?
(ii) How many viewers watch exactly one of the sports.

Ans: 20, 325

Problem:
 Professor Diane gave her chemistry class a test
consisting of three questions. There are 21 students in
her class and every student answered at least one
question. Five students did not answer the first
question, seven failed to answer the second question
and six did not answer the third question. If nine
students answered all three questions, how many
answered exactly one question?
 Answer 6