Introduction

• Irony (from Ancient Greek eirōneía, meaning

‘concealment’) is a rhetorical device, literary
technique, or event in which what appears, on
the surface, to be the case, differs radically
from what is actually the case.
• Irony can be categorized into different types,
including: verbal irony, dramatic irony, and
situational irony.
 Introduction
• Verbal, dramatic, and situational irony are often
used for emphasis in the assertion of a truth. The
ironic form of simile, used in sarcasm, and some
forms of litotes can emphasize one's meaning by
the deliberate use of language which states the
opposite of the truth, denies the contrary of the
truth, or drastically and obviously understates a
factual connection.
• Other forms, as identified by historian Connop
Thirlwall, include dialectic and practical irony.
 Definitions
• Henry Watson Fowler, in The King's English,
says, “that the surface meaning and the
underlying meaning of what is said are not the
same.“
• Also, Eric Partridge, in Usage and Abusage,
writes that “Irony consists in stating the contrary
of what is meant.”
 Definitions
• The use of irony may require the concept of a
double audience. Fowler's A Dictionary of
Modern English Usage says: “Irony is a form
of utterance that postulates a double audience,
consisting of one party that hearing shall hear
and shall not understand, and another party
that, when more is meant than meets the ear, is
aware both of that more and of the outsiders'
incomprehension.
 Definitions
• The term is sometimes used as a synonym for
incongruous and applied to “every trivial
oddity” in situations where there is no double
audience. An example of such usage is:
Sullivan, whose real interest was, ironically,
serious music, which he composed with varying
degrees of success, achieved fame for his comic
opera scores rather than for his more earnest
efforts.
 Definitions
• The American Heritage Dictionary's
secondary meaning for irony: “incongruity
between what might be expected and what
actually occurs.” This sense, however, is not
synonymous with “incongruous” but merely a
definition of dramatic or situational irony.
 Definitions
• On this aspect, The Oxford English Dictionary
(OED) has also:
A condition of affairs or events of a character
opposite to what was, or might naturally be,
expected; a contradictory outcome of events as if
in mockery of the promise and fitness of things.
(In French, ironie du sort).
 Origin of the Term
• The term irony has its roots in the Greek comic
character Eiron, a clever underdog who by his
wit repeatedly triumphs over the boastful
character Alazon. The Socratic irony of the
Platonic dialogues derives from this comic origin.
• According to Richard Whately: Aristotle
mentions Eironeia, which in his time was
commonly employed to signify, not according to
the modern use of ‘Irony, saying the contrary to
what is meant’, but, what later writers usually
express by Litotes, ‘saying less than is meant’.
 Types of Irony (According to New
Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry
and Poetics)
• Classical Irony – Referring to the origins of
irony in Ancient Greek comedy.
• Romantic Irony – A self-aware and self-critical
form of fiction.
• Cosmic Irony – A contrast between the
absolute and the relative, the general and the
individual, the “general [irony] of the world.”
 Types of Irony (According to New
Princeton Encyclopedia of Poetry
and Poetics)
• Verbal Irony – A contradiction between a
statement's stated and intended meaning
• Situational Irony – The disparity of intention
and result; when the result of an action is
contrary to the desired or expected effect.
• Dramatic Irony and Tragic Irony: A disparity
of awareness between an actor and an observer:
In tragic irony, the audience knows the character
is making a mistake, even as the character is
making it.
• Verbal irony

• According to A glossary of literary terms by Abrams and Hartman,

• Verbal irony is a statement in which the meaning that a speaker employs is sharply different from the meaning that is ostensibly expressed. An ironic statement usually involves the explicit expression of one attitude or
evaluation, but with indications in the overall speech-situation that the speaker intends a very different, and often opposite, attitude or evaluation.[12]

• Verbal irony is distinguished from situational irony and dramatic irony in that it is produced intentionally by speakers. For instance, if a man exclaims, "I'm not upset!" but reveals an upset emotional state through his voice
while truly trying to claim he's not upset, it would not be verbal irony by virtue of its verbal manifestation (it would, however, be situational irony). But if the same speaker said the same words and intended to communicate
that he was upset by claiming he was not, the utterance would be verbal irony. This distinction illustrates an important aspect of verbal irony—speakers communicate implied propositions that are intentionally contradictory to
the propositions contained in the words themselves. There are, however, examples of verbal irony that do not rely on saying the opposite of what one means, and there are cases where all the traditional criteria of irony exist
and the utterance is not ironic.

• In a clear example from literature, in Shakespeare's Julius Caesar, Mark Antony's speech after the assassination of Caesar appears to praise the assassins, particularly Brutus ("But Brutus says he was ambitious; / And Brutus
is an honourable man"), while actually condemning them. "We're left in no doubt as to who's ambitious and who's honourable. The literal truth of what's written clashes with the perceived truth of what's meant to revealing
effect, which is irony in a nutshell". [13]

• Ironic similes are a form of verbal irony where a speaker intends to communicate the opposite of what they mean. For instance, the following explicit similes begin with the deceptive formation of a statement that means A but
that eventually conveys the meaning not A:

• • as soft as concrete

• • as clear as mud

• • as pleasant as a root canal

• • "as pleasant and relaxed as a coiled rattlesnake" (Kurt Vonnegut from Breakfast of Champions)

• The irony is recognizable in each case only by using knowledge of the source concepts (e.g., that mud is opaque, that root canal surgery is painful) to detect an incongruity.

• Verbal irony and sarcasm

• A fair amount of confusion has surrounded the issue of the relationship between verbal irony and sarcasm.

• Fowler's A Dictionary of Modern English Usage states:

• Sarcasm does not necessarily involve irony and irony has often no touch of sarcasm.

• This suggests that the two concepts are linked but may be considered separately. The Oxford English Dictionary's entry for sarcasm does not mention irony, but the irony entry includes:

• A figure of speech in which the intended meaning is the opposite of that expressed by the words used; usually taking the form of sarcasm or ridicule in which laudatory expressions are used to imply condemnation or
contempt.

• The Encyclopædia Britannica has "Non-literary irony is often called sarcasm"; while the Webster's Dictionary entry is:

• Sarcasm: 1 : a sharp and often satirical or ironic utterance designed to cut or give pain. 2 a : a mode of satirical wit depending for its effect on bitter, caustic, and often ironic language that is usually directed against an
individual.

• Partridge in Usage and Abusage would separate the two forms of speech completely:

• Irony must not be confused with sarcasm, which is direct: sarcasm means precisely what it says, but in a sharp, caustic, ... manner.
• Dramatic irony

• Dramatic irony exploits the device of giving the spectator an item of information that at least one of the characters in the narrative is unaware of (at least consciously), thus placing the spectator a step ahead of at least one
of the characters. Connop Thirlwall in his 1833 article On the Irony of Sophocles originally highlighted the role of irony in drama.[18][19] The Oxford English Dictionary defines dramatic irony as:[11]

• the incongruity created when the (tragic) significance of a character's speech or actions is revealed to the audience but unknown to the character concerned; the literary device so used, orig. in Greek tragedy.

• According to Stanton,[20] dramatic irony has three stages—installation, exploitation, and resolution (often also called preparation, suspension, and resolution) —producing dramatic conflict in what one character relies or
appears to rely upon, the contrary of which is known by observers (especially the audience; sometimes to other characters within the drama) to be true. In summary, it means that the reader/watcher/listener knows
something that one or more of the characters in the piece is not aware of.

• For example:

• • In City Lights, the audience knows that Charlie Chaplin's character is not a millionaire, but the blind flower girl (Virginia Cherrill) believes him to be rich.[21]

• • In North by Northwest, the audience knows that Roger Thornhill (Cary Grant) is not Kaplan; Vandamm (James Mason) and his accomplices do not. The audience also knows that Kaplan is a fictitious agent
invented by the CIA; Roger (initially) and Vandamm (throughout) do not.[22]

• • In Othello, the audience knows that Desdemona has remained faithful to Othello, but Othello does not. The audience also knows that Iago is scheming to bring about Othello's downfall, a fact hidden from
Othello, Desdemona, Cassio, and Roderigo.[23]

• • In "The Cask of Amontillado", the reader knows that Montresor is planning on murdering Fortunato, while Fortunato believes they are friends.[24]

• • In The Truman Show, the viewer realizes that Truman is on a television show, but Truman himself only gradually learns this.[25]

• Tragic irony

• Tragic irony is a special category of dramatic irony. In tragic irony, the words and actions of the characters contradict the real situation, which the spectators fully realize. The Oxford English Dictionary defines this as:[11]

• the incongruity created when the (tragic) significance of a character's speech or actions is revealed to the audience but unknown to the character concerned, the literary device so used, orig. in Greek tragedy.

• Ancient Greek drama was especially characterized by tragic irony because the audiences were so familiar with the legends that most of the plays dramatized. Sophocles' Oedipus Rex provides a classic example of tragic irony
at its fullest. Colebrook writes:[26]

• Tragic irony is exemplified in ancient drama.... The audience watched a drama unfold, already knowing its destined outcome.... In Sophocles' Oedipus the King, for example, 'we' (the audience) can see what Oedipus is blind
to. The man he murders is his father, but he does not know it.

• Further, Oedipus vows to find the murderer and curses him for the plague that he has caused, not knowing that the murderer he has cursed and vowed to find is himself. The audience knows that Oedipus himself is the
murderer that he is seeking; Oedipus, Creon, and Jocasta do not.[27]

• Irony has some of its foundation in the onlooker's perception of paradox that arises from insoluble problems. For example, in the William Shakespeare play Romeo and Juliet, when Romeo finds Juliet in a drugged, deathlike
sleep, he assumes her to be dead. The audience knows that Juliet has faked her death, yet Romeo believes she is truly dead, and commits suicide. Upon awakening to find her dead lover beside her, Juliet stabs herself with a
dagger thus killing herself, too.[28]
• Situational irony
• Situational irony is a relatively modern use of the term, and describes a sharp discrepancy between the expected result
and actual results in a certain situation.
• Lars Elleström writes:
• Situational irony ... is most broadly defined as a situation where the outcome is incongruous with what was expected,
but it is also more generally understood as a situation that includes contradictions or sharp contrasts.[29]
• For example:
• • When John Hinckley attempted to assassinate Ronald Reagan, all of his shots initially missed the President;
however, a bullet ricocheted off the bullet-proof Presidential limousine and struck Reagan in the chest. Thus, a vehicle
made to protect the President from gunfire instead directed gunfire to the president.[30][31]
• • The Wonderful Wizard of Oz is a story whose plot revolves around situational irony. Dorothy travels to a wizard
and fulfills his challenging demands in order to go home, before discovering she'd had the ability to go back home all
along. The Scarecrow longs for intelligence, only to discover he is already a genius, and the Tin Woodman longs to have
a heart, only to discover he is already capable of love. The Lion, who at first appears to be a whimpering coward, turns
out to be bold and fearless. The people in Emerald Citybelieved the Wizard to be a powerful deity, only to discover that
he is a bumbling, eccentric old man with no special powers at all.[31][32]
• • In O. Henry's story "The Gift of the Magi", a young couple are too poor to buy each other Christmas gifts. The
wife cuts off her treasured hair to sell it to a wig-maker for money to buy her husband a chain for his heirloom pocket
watch. She's shocked when she learns he had pawned his watch to buy her a set of combs for her long, beautiful, prized
hair. "The double irony lies in the particular way their expectations were foiled." [33]
• Cosmic irony (irony of fate)

• The expression cosmic irony or "irony of fate" stems from the notion that the gods (or the Fates) are amusing themselves by toying with the minds of mortals with deliberate ironic intent. Closely connected with situational
irony, it arises from sharp contrasts between reality and human ideals, or between human intentions and actual results. The resulting situation is poignantly contrary to what was expected or intended.

• According to Sudhir Dixit, "Cosmic irony is a term that is usually associated with [Thomas] Hardy. ... There is a strong feeling of a hostile deus ex machina in Hardy's novels." In Tess of the d'Urbervilles "there are several
instances of this type of irony."[34] One example follows:[35]

• "Justice" was done, and the President of the Immortals (in Æschylean phrase) had ended his sport with Tess.

• Historical irony

• When history is seen through modern eyes, there often appear sharp contrasts between the way historical figures see their world's future and what actually transpires. For example, during the 1920s The New York Times
repeatedly scorned crossword puzzles. In 1924, it lamented "the sinful waste in the utterly futile finding of words the letters of which will fit into a prearranged pattern." In 1925 it said "the question of whether the puzzles are
beneficial or harmful is in no urgent need of an answer. The craze evidently is dying out fast." Today, no U.S. newspaper is more closely identified with the crossword than The New York Times.[36]

• In a more tragic example of historical irony, what people now refer to as the "First World War" was called by H. G. Wells "the war that will end war",[37] which soon became "the war to end war" and "the war to end all
wars", and this became a widespread truism, almost a cliché. Historical irony is therefore a subset of cosmic irony, but one in which the element of time is bound to play a role. Another example could be that of the Vietnam
War, where in the 1960s the US attempted to stop the Viet Cong (Viet Minh) taking over South Vietnam. However, it is an often ignored fact that, in 1941, the US originally supported the Viet Minh in its fight against Japanese
occupation.[38]

• In the introduction to The Irony of American History, Andrew Bacevich writes:[39]

• After 9/11, the Bush administration announced its intention of bringing freedom and democracy to the people of the Middle East. Ideologues within the Bush administration persuaded themselves that American power, adroitly
employed, could transform that region ... The results speak for themselves.

• Gunpowder was, according to prevailing academic consensus, discovered in the 9th century by Chinese alchemists searching for an elixir of immortality.[40]

• Historical irony also includes inventors killed by their own creations, such as William Bullock – unless, due to the nature of the invention, the risk of death was always known and accepted, as in the case of Otto Lilienthal, who
was killed by flying a glider of his own devising.

• In certain kinds of situational or historical irony, a factual truth is highlighted by some person's complete ignorance of it or his belief in its opposite. However, this state of affairs does not occur by human design. In some
religious contexts, such situations have been seen as the deliberate work of divine providence to emphasize truths and to taunt humans for not being aware of them when they could easily have been enlightened (this is
similar to human use of irony). Such ironies are often more evident, or more striking, when viewed retrospectively in the light of later developments which make the truth of past situations obvious to all.

• Other prominent examples of outcomes now seen as poignantly contrary to expectation include:

• • In the Dred Scott v. Sandford ruling in 1856, the United States Supreme Court held that the Fifth Amendment barred any law that would deprive a slaveholder of his property, such as his slaves, upon the
incidence of migration into free territory. So, in a sense, the Supreme Court used the Bill of Rights to deny rights to slaves. Also, Chief Justice Taney hoped that the decision would resolve the slavery issue, but instead it
helped cause the American Civil War.[41]

• • In the Kalgoorlie (Australia) gold rush of the 1890s, large amounts of the little-known mineral calaverite (gold telluride) were ironically identified as fool's gold. These mineral deposits were used as a cheap
building material, and for the filling of potholes and ruts. When several years later the mineral was identified, there was a minor gold rush to excavate the streets.[42]

• • John F. Kennedy's last conversation was ironic in light of events which followed seconds later. During the motorcade in Dallas, in response to Mrs. Connolly's comment, "Mr. President, you can't say that Dallas
doesn't love you," Kennedy replied, "That's very obvious." Immediately after, he was mortally wounded.[43]

• • In 1974, the US Consumer Product Safety Commission had to recall 80,000 of its own lapel buttons promoting "toy safety", because the buttons had sharp edges, used lead paint, and had small clips that could
be broken off and subsequently swallowed.[44]

• • Introducing cane toads to Australia to control the cane beetle not only failed to control the pest, but introduced, in the toads themselves, a much worse pest.[45]