CELL CYCLE AND CELL

DIVISION
Overview: The Key Roles of Cell Division
• The ability of organisms to produce more of their own kind best
distinguishes living things from nonliving matter.
• The continuity of life is based on the reproduction of cells, or cell
division.
• In unicellular organisms, division of one
cell reproduces the entire organism.
• Multicellular organisms depend on cell
division for:
• Development from a fertilized cell
• Growth
• Repair
• Cell division is an integral part of the
cell cycle, the life of a cell from
formation to its own division.

(c) Tissue renewal

 Cellular Organization of the Genetic Material
• All the DNA in a cell constitutes the cell’s genome.
• A genome can consist of a single DNA molecule
(common in prokaryotic cells) or a number of DNA
molecules (common in eukaryotic cells)
• DNA molecules in a cell are packaged into
chromosomes.
• Eukaryotic chromosomes consist of chromatin, a
complex of DNA and protein that condenses during
cell division.
• Every eukaryotic species has a characteristic
number of chromosomes in each cell nucleus.
• Somatic cells (nonreproductive cells)- cells that
make organs and tissues.
• Gametic cells (sperm and egg).
Distribution of Chromosomes During
Eukaryotic Cell Division
• In preparation for cell division, DNA is replicated
and the chromosomes condense.
• Each duplicated chromosome has two sister
chromatids (joined copies of the original
chromosome), which separate during cell division
• The centromere is the narrow “waist” of the
duplicated chromosome, where the two
chromatids are most closely attached
• During cell division, the two sister chromatids of each duplicated
chromosome separate and move into two nuclei.
• Once separate, the chromatids are called chromosomes.
Types of Cell Reproduction
• Asexual reproduction involves a single cell
dividing to make 2 new, identical daughter cells.
(Binary fission)
• Sexual reproduction involves two cells (egg &
sperm) joining to make a new cell (zygote) that is
NOT identical to the original cells
Cell Division in Prokaryotes
• Prokaryotes such as bacteria divide into
2 identical cells by the process of binary
fission.
• Single chromosome makes a copy of
itself.
• Cell wall forms between the
chromosomes dividing the cell.
CELL DIVISION
• Eukaryotic cell division consists of
Mitosis, the division of the nucleus.
Cytokinesis, the division of the cytoplasm.
• Gametes are produced by a variation of cell division called meiosis.
• Meiosis yields non-identical daughter cells that have only one set of
chromosomes, half as many as the parent cell
CELL CYCLE
• The cell cycle is the series of events that cells go through as they grow
and divide.

Phases of the Cell Cycle:

• consists of:
• Mitotic (M) phase (mitosis and cytokinesis)
• Interphase (cell growth and copying of chromosomes in
preparation for cell division)
-Cell spends most of its life in this phase.
Four Phases of the Cell Cycle
1. G1 phase (“first gap”)
2. S phase (“synthesis”)
3. G2 phase (“second gap”)
4. M phase
Events of the Cell Cycle
During G1, the cell
• increases in size (cell grows)
• Cell produces all of the structures it needs to carry out its functions (cell
develops)
During the S phase, (DNA replication)
• chromosomes are replicated
• DNA synthesis takes place
• happens because the new cell needs all of the directions for its function
and survival.
Once a cell enters the S phase, it usually completes the rest of the cell cycle.

Two identical
copies of
DNA
The G2 Phase (Second Gap Phase)
• organelles and molecules required for cell division are produced.
• occurs after DNA has been copied.
• Once complete, the cell is ready to start the M phase—Mitosis.
MITOSIS
• Division of the nucleus.
• Also called karyokinesis.
• Only occurs in eukaryotes.
• Conventionally divided into four (4) phases:
1) Prophase
2) Metaphase
3) Anaphase
4) Telophase
 the cells’ copied genetic material separates
and the cell prepares to split into two cells

 This allows the cell’s genetic material to pass

into the new cells
• The resulting daughter cells are genetically
identical!!
 PROPHASE
• is the first and longest phase of mitosis.
• Chromatin in nucleus condenses to form
visible chromosomes.
• Nuclei disappear.
• Duplicated chromosomes appears as two
identical sister chromatids.
• Mitotic spindle begins to form (composed
of centrosomes and microtubules).
• Spindle fibers called kinetochores attach
to the centromere of each chromosome.

* The centrosome helps to organize the

spindle, a fanlike microtubule structure that
helps separate the chromosomes.
SUMMARY OF PROPHASE
• First phase of MITOSIS- Longest
Phase
• Chromosomes become visible.
• Centrioles separate and move to
opposite poles (ends).
• Spindle fibers appear.
• Nucleolus and nuclear
membrane (envelope) disappear.
METAPHASE
• The chromosomes line up across
the center of the cell.
• Chromosomes convene at the
metaphase plate, a line at the
middle of the cell.
• Chromosomes, attached to the
kinetochore fibers, move to the
center of the cell.
SUMMARY OF METAPHASE
• Chromosomes attach to spindle
fibers in center of the cell.
ANAPHASE
• The sister chromatids separate
into individual chromosomes.
• pulled apart to opposite poles
of the cell by kinetochore fibers.
SUMMARY OF ANAPHASE
• Centromeres split apart and
chromatids separate from one
another. Each chromatid moves
to opposite poles.
TELOPHASE
• Chromosomes gather at
opposite ends of the cell and
lose their distinct shape.
• Spindle disassembles.
• Nuclear envelope forms around
each set of sister chromatids.
• Nucleolus reappears.
• Chromosomes become less
condensed.
SUMMARY OF TELOPHASE
• Chromosomes reach opposite
poles of cell.
• Chromatids unwind back into
chromatin.
• Nuclear envelope and nucleolus
reappear reforming the nucleus.
• Spindle fibers disappear.
• New double membrane (cell
membrane ) gain to form
between 2 nuclei (cell pinches).
CYTOKINESIS
• the cytoplasm pinches in half.
• Results in two separate daughter
cells with identical nuclei.
•Each daughter cell has an
identical set of duplicate
chromosomes.
• In plant cells, cell plate forms at
the equator to divide cell
• In animal cells, cleavage furrow
forms to split cell
Cell plate in
plant cell
 Learning Checkpoint

1. Which phase do cells spend the most time?

2. What are the 3 stages of interphase?

3. What are the 4 stages of mitosis?
Uncontrolled Mitosis
• unlimited cell division occurs
causing cancerous tumors.
• Oncogenes are special proteins
that increase the chance that a
normal cell develops into a
tumor cell.
MEIOSIS
• the process of cell division that produces
haploid gametes (half the number of
chromosomes: humans: 23)
• specialized kind of cell division that
reduces the chromosome number by half
results in the production of haploid
daughter cells.
Discovery of Meiosis
• In 1882, British cytologist Pierre-
Joseph van Beneden found
different numbers of
chromosomes in different cells.

• Specifically, he observed that

gametes (sperm & egg) contain
half the number of chromosomes
compared to somatic cells (non-
reproductive cells).
• Van Beneden then proposed that an
egg and a sperm fuse to produce a
zygote .

• The zygote contains two copies of

each chromosome (one copy from
the sperm and one copy from the
egg). These are called homologous
chromosomes.
KEY FEATURES:
• Meiosis involves two sequential cycles of
nuclear and cell division called meiosis I
and meiosis II.
• Meiosis involves pairing of homologous
chromosomes and recombination
between them.
MEIOSIS I- Prophase I
• the first meiotic division is typically longer and more complex when
compared to prophase of mitosis.
• Individual chromosomes first become visible.
• crossing over occurs.
FIVE PHASES:
1. Leptotene stage- the
chromosomes become
gradually visible.
2. Zygotene stage- chromosomes
start pairing together
(synapsis).

are more clearly visible at the next stage.

3. Pachytene stage- bivalent chromosomes are now clearly appear as
tetrads.
4. Diplotene stage- recognized by the dissolution of the synaptonemal
complex and the tendency of the recombined homologous
chromosomes of the bivalents to separate from each other.
X shaped structure- CHIASMATA
5. Diakinesis- final stage of meiotic prophase I.
• the chromosomes are fully condensed and the meiotic spindle is
assembled to prepare the homologous chromosomes for separation.
• nucleolus disappears and the nuclear envelope also breaks down.
METAPHASE I
• The homologous chromosomes
line up in the center of the cell
and are still held together.
• The microtubules from the
opposite poles of the spindle
attach to the pair of homologous
chromosome.
ANAPHASE I
• The homologous chromosomes
separate, while sister chromatids
remain associated at their
centromeres.
 TELOPHASE I
• The nuclear membrane and
nucleolus reappear.
• Cytokinesis follows and this is
called as diad of cells.
• Each new cell now contains two
sister chromatids that are NOT
identical due to crossing over.
At the end of Meiosis I…
• You have made 2 cells

• Each cell contains a haploid number of chromosomes – 1 copy of each

chromosome.
• (for humans, each haploid cell has 23 chromosomes).
MEIOSIS II- initiated immediately after cytokinesis, usually
before the chromosomes have fully elongated.
• Meiosis II produces gametes with one copy of each chromosome and thus
one copy of each gene.
PROPHASE II
• Nuclear envelope breaks down
again.
• The chromosomes again become
compact.
METAPHASE II
• the chromosomes align at the
equator and the microtubules
from opposite poles of the
spindle get attached to the
kinetochores.
ANAPHASE II
• begins with the simultaneous
splitting of the centromere of
each chromosome allowing
them to move toward opposite
poles of the cell
 TELOPHASE II
• the two groups of chromosomes
once again get enclosed by a
nuclear envelope; cytokinesis
follows resulting in the
formation of tetrad of cells i.e.,
four haploid daughter cells
 At the end of Meiosis II…
• At the end of Meiosis II, there are 4 haploid cells. (only 1 copy of each
chromosome).
-(for humans, each haploid cell has 23 chromosomes).
• No two of these haploid cells are alike due to crossing over.
-This is why you and your siblings are genetically unique!