PLANT

DEVELOPMENTAL
BIOLOGY

Hery Purnobasuki@2013
 SILABUS
Prinsip-prinsip biologi
perkembangan; Siklus hidup
dan evolusi pola-pola
perkembangan; Prinsip
embriologi eksperimental;
Gen dan peranannya dalam
perkembangan; Komunikasi
dalam perkembangan;
Perkembangan awal dan akhir
embrionik; Determinasi sex,
metamorfosis, regenerasi dan
penuaan; Regulasi lingkungan
terhadap perkembangan,
Mekanisme perkembangan
dan perubahan evolusi.
Organic form is thus the visible expression of an inner relatedness
characteristic of life at every level. This can be most simply designated as
biological organization and is the most important problem that confronts
students of the life sciences.
 Patterns of Early Growth
and Development
• Seed germination
• Dependent on
– Temperature
– Moisture
– Oxygen
– Daylight hours
• Imbibition
– Coat ruptures
• Seed swells from
H2O update
 Growth vs Development
• Growth
– Quantitative
– Number, size, and
volume increase

• Development
– Qualitative
– Emergence of
specialized body
parts
Loosening of cell wall
 • Cell elongation in response to auxin
3 Wedge-shaped expansins, activated
by low pH, separate cellulose microfibrils from
Cell wall cross-linking polysaccharides. The exposed cross-linking
enzymes polysaccharides are now more accessible to cell wall enzymes.
Cross-linking Expansin
cell wall 4 The enzymatic cleaving
polysaccharides of the cross-linking
CELL WALL
polysaccharides allows
the microfibrils to slide.
The extensibility of the
Microfibril cell wall is increased. Turgor
causes the cell to expand.
H2O
Cell
H+ Plasma wall
2 The cell wall
H+ membrane
becomes more
acidic. H+
H+
H+ H+ H+
H+

1 Auxin Nucleus Cytoplasm

increases the Vacuole
activity of ATP Plasma membrane
proton pumps. H+ 5 With the cellulose loosened,
the cell can elongate.
Cytoplasm
Embryonic development involves 4
interrelated processes:

- cell division
- cell growth
- cell differentiation
- morphogenesis
• Cell division multiplies cells (cloning).
• Differentiation makes cells “grow up”
(specialization of form and function).
– Different kinds of cells are organized into tissues and
organs.
• Morphogenesis, the “creation of form,” gives an
organism its shape.
– basic body plan laid out very early in embryonic
development.
– includes establishing the major axes of the embryo:
anterior-posterior, dorsal-ventral.
– Includes e.g. segmentation
Developmental in animals and plants is very
different…
– In animals, but not in plants, movements of cells
and tissues are necessary to transform the embryo.
• Ongoing development in adults limited to differentiation
(e.g. replenishing blood cells)
• E.g. morphogenesis defect = cleft palate
– In plants, morphogenesis and growth in overall size
are not limited to embryonic and juvenile periods.
• Have apical meristems for continual growth of roots, leaves.
FUNDAMENTAL DIFFERENCES BETWEEN
DEVELOPMENT OF PLANTS VS. DEVELOPMENT
OF ANIMALS
1. Plant cells don’t migrate. No migration of cells to create
a gut (gastrulation). No migration of cells like neural
crest.
2. Meiosis in plants produces spores, not gametes. Plant
gametes produced by mitotic division after meiosis.
3. Life cycle of land plants has both diploid and haploid
multicellular stages. No multicellular haploid in animals.
4. Plant germ cells not set aside early in development.
5. Plants undergo extended morphogenesis. Meristems
(similar to stem cells) persist long after maturity and
continue to give rise to new structures (morphogenesis).
6. Plants have greater developmental plasticity.
 NOTES:
Plants do not gastrulate. Plant cells are trapped within rigid
cellulose walls that generally prevent cell and tissue migration.
Plants, like animals, develop three basic tissue systems (dermal,
ground, and vascular), but do not rely on gastrulation to establish
this layered system of tissues. Plant development is highly regulated
by the environment, a strategy that is adaptive for a stationary
organism.

Plants have sporic meiosis rather than gametic meiosis. That is,
spores, not gametes, are produced by meiosis. Gametes are
produced by mitotic divisions following meiosis.

Germ cells are not set aside early in development. This is also the
case in several animal phyla, but it is true for all plants.
The life cycle of land plants (as well as many other
plants) includes both diploid and haploid multicellular
stages. This type of life cycle is referred to as alternation
of generations. The evolutionary trend has been toward a
reduction in the size of the haploid generation.

Plants undergo extended morphogenesis. Clusters of

actively dividing cells called meristems, which are similar
to stem cells in animals, persist long after maturity.
Meristems allow for reiterative development and the
formation of new structures throughout the life of the
plant.
Plants have tremendous developmental plasticity. Many
plant cells are highly plastic. While cloning in animals also
illustrates plasticity, plants depend more heavily on this
developmental strategy. For example, if a shoot is grazed by
herbivores, meristems in the leaf often grow out to replace
the lost part. (This strategy has similarities to the
regeneration seen in some animals.) Whole plants can even
be regenerated from some single cells. In addition, a plant's
form (including branching, height, and relative amounts of
vegetative and reproductive structures) is greatly influenced
by environmental factors such as light and temperature, and
a wide range of morphologies can result from the same
genotype. This amazing level of plasticity may help
compensate for the plant's lack of mobility.
Plants may tolerate higher genetic loads than animals. Plant
genomes can carry a much greater load of mutations than animals
before the phenotype is affected. For example, half of the maize
(corn) genome appears to be made up of foreign DNA (SanMiguel
et al. 1996). Most of it is in the form of retroelements that
resemble retroviruses. The maize plant appears to function quite
well with all of this “hitchhiking” DNA. Animals also have a
significant amount of foreign DNA, but aneuploidy and polyploidy
can be developmentally harmful to them. When plants are
aneuploid or polyploid, the consequences can be adaptive. Many
flowers found in the florist shop and the wheat used for bread
flour are examples of successful polyploids.
Fig. 21.2
Copyright © 2002 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
 Life Cycle
• Some angiosperms have a life cycle that is
one year long. These are called annuals.
• Some angiosperms complete their life
cycle in two years. These are called
biannuals.
• Some angiosperms live for more than two
years. These are called perennials.
 Proving genomic equivalence: differentiated root cells can be
de-programmed to grow into a whole plant (Steward, 1950’s):

Fig. 21.5

WHOA! We’ve cloned a plant! Plant cells remain TOTIPOTENT!

 *

In ANGIOSPERMS, the multicellular haploid gametophyte stage is much reduced.

Mitotic division follows meiosis in the sporophyte (*) resulting in small, but
multicellular gametophyte – which produces eggs (in embryo sac) or sperm (in
pollen grain).
 Responses to Environmental Cues

• Plants respond to environmental cues,

including gravity, sunlight, and seasonal shifts
in night length and temperatures, by altering
patterns of growth

• Cyclic patterns of growth are responses to

changing seasons and other recurring
environmental patterns
(a) Before exposure to light (b) After a week’s exposure to
natural daylight
 Shaded
side of
coleoptile
Light

Illuminated
side of
coleoptile
 RESULTS

Darwin and Darwin: phototropic response

only when tip is illuminated

Light

Tip Tip covered Tip Site of

removed by opaque covered curvature
cap by trans- covered by
parent opaque
cap shield
 RESULTS

Boysen-Jensen: phototropic response when tip is separated

by permeable barrier, but not with impermeable barrier

Light

Tip separated Tip separated

by gelatin by mica
(permeable) (impermeable)
RESULTS

Excised tip placed

on agar cube

Growth-promoting
chemical diffuses
into agar cube

Agar cube
Control with chemical
(agar cube stimulates growth
lacking
chemical) Offset cubes
has no cause curvature
Control effect
 Plant Development
• influenced by:
– plane & symmetry of cell division
– direction of cell expansion
– positional information
– homeotic genes
asymmetric leaves
Regulatory genes called homeotic genes (ex) genetic control of flowering
Developmental organ of plant to defend against herbivores
Thank you

hery-p@fst.unair.ac.id