CLAIM, EVIDENCE, REFUTATION, STRUCTURE OF

AN ARGUMENT, & BIAS

By :
1. Annisa Ainul Mardiyah (11180260000123)
2. Muhamad Faza (11180260000124)
3. Mahdah Amaliyah (11180260000144)
4. Yesa Mahesa (11180260000145)
5. Imam Ma’arif (11180260000147)
 BACKGROUND
A persuasive text is any text where the main purpose is to present a point of view
and seeks to persuade a reader. A persuasive text can be an argument, exposition,
discussion, review or even an advertisement. A persuasive text is organised to
include a ‘statement of position’, ‘arguments’ and a ‘reinforcement of position
statement’. by learning the basic of persuasive text, reader has to understand how
persuasive text was implemented by the writer.
Recently, students find difficult to recognize writer's contents in a persuasive text.
There are a lot of ways for students to read more clearly. First, students have to read
about text. Second, they will try to find the main idea of the text.. Third, students
have to try recognizing the pattern of the text using transitional elements. Last but
not least, they have to understand writer’s contents by learning how to be
effectively find the contents itself.
To find the contents, we have to recognize the form of the contents. We will be
able to distinguish and know the contents of the message to be conveyed by the
author by learning what the meanings of claims, evidence, refutation, structure of
arguments and bias. These theories will help the student understand the purpose of
the text and the perspective of the writer itself.
 PROBLEM FORMULATION
• What is the definition of claims, evidence, refutation, and bias?

• Why the claims, evidence, refutation, and bias are important?

• What are the claims, evidence, refutation, and bias of

development?

• How to detect and determine the claims, evidence, refutation

and bias?
CLAIMS
A. DEFINITION OF CLAIM
According to the KBBI, Claims are divided into two meanings. First,
claims are demands recognition of the fact that a person has a right
(to own or possess) over something (e.g: The Indonesian government
will make compensation to the owner of the foreign ship). Second,
claims are a statement of a fact or truth (e.g: He claims that the
electronics belong to him). From literarydevice.net describe claims as
a statement essentially arguable, but used as a primary point to
support or prove an argument is called a claim. If somebody gives an
argument to support his position, it is called “making a claim”.
B. TYPE OF CLAIMS
i. Claims of Fact
A claim of fact is something that happened in the past, present or in the future. This type declares us about the existing
of something or something does not exist. We can verify, measuring, testing, and proving this type by mentioning
factual evidence, the result of scientific research or in the case of predictions.
Examples: - BPA is a potentially harmful chemical found in hard, clear plastic water bottles that has been associated
with some types of cancer and with early onset of puberty.1

ii. Claims of Value

A claim of value is involving matters such as taste, morality, opinion, and ideas about right or wrong, and because of
this, they are harder to prove than are claims of fact. The support for a claim of value usually in the form of reasons,
examples, reference to a book of rules or other work ( such as the Bible, the Koran or the Constitution), and personal
experience. It is claiming whether something is good or bad or the other thing is better than the other one.
Examples: - The drinking water in metropolitan areas like New York City and the San Francisco Bay Area tastes just as
good as, if not better than, the water you buy in plastic bottles like Evian, Calistoga, Dasani, or Crystal Geyser.

iii. Claims of Policy

A claim of policy is something that should or should not be done, argue for recommended course of action, propose a
change or a new policy, or identify a problem that needs a solution. Usually in the claims of policy may include a word
like “should”, “must”, or “ought to”. They are typically supported by good reasons, facts, statistics, examples, or the
testimony of authorities or expert.
Example: - Bisphenol A (BPA), a compound in hard, clear plastic, should be banned from containers such as baby
bottles and water bottles.
EVIDENCE

A. DEFINITION OF EVIDENCE
Evidence means objects, documents, official statements, etc.
Used to prove something is it true or not true. Especially for
legal or insurance purposes.(dictionary.cambridge.org). But,
evidence in persuasive writing means that after we get the
writer’s claim we can identify and evaluate the evidence used
by the writer. Usually the writer used one kind of evidence or
they combine one kind of evidence with the other evidence.
B. KINDS OF EVIDENCE

i. Facts and Statistics : The strongest type of evidence in persuasive writing is statistical evidence. We can
know about this kind of evidence based on scientific studies,the research reports, and from the statistical
data,such as hard data presented as a percentage or number, to survey-type data. The examples of
Evidence; “5 members were present during the reading class”, “The goverment estimates that 11% of
American students are obese”, and “4 out of 5 experts claim that…..”

ii. Examples and observations : this type come from the writer's experience or from reading. This type of
evidence is most useful when you have examples that are close to the experience of your audience
members or particularly meaningful to them. Cases or examples are particularly apt with business
audiences because they show real world applications that are easy to understand. Sometimes they even
provide a hint of competitive pressure.

iii. Good reasons : this type answers the question “why?”

iv. Quotation and testimony : A person or an organization with the credential (such as educational
degrees, publication credits, work experience, professional presentations,etc) or usually quotation and
testimony or usually quotation and testimony comes from an expert, such as scientist, doctor,lawyer or
celebrities that demonstrate his or her expertise on the topic disscused.
REFUTATION

A. DEFINITION OF REFUTATION
A refutation proves that something is false or something wrong by
argument. In speeches, refutation and confirmation are often
presented "conjointly with one another" (in the words of the
unknown author of Ad Herennium): support for
a claim (confirmation) can be enhanced by a challenge to
the validity of an opposing claim (refutation).
B. TYPE OF REFUTATION

(1) refutation through evidence, For an argument to be counted as one of the valid
examples of refutation through evidence, it needs to be an argument backed up by
some form of evidence. In the absence of clear bases or justifications it cannot be
declared valid. Therefore, a writer can refute a contradicting argument if he can
provide evidence that conclusively negates it, or by presenting more recent or credible
evidence.
(2) refutation through logic, Refutation examples through logic are quite tricky to
construct. It involves deconstructing the opposing argument, and presenting it in such a
way as to highlight the discrepancies present within the argument. Most skilled writers
check the validity of their arguments before publishing them. This makes refutation
through logic all the more difficult. There is no denying the fact then that refutation
through logic constitutes a difficult task at hand. However, writers have employed this
tool in their respective writings.
(3) refutation through exposing the discrepancies of opposing argument,The method
involves showing that one of the contradicting arguments lacks the core ingredient of
centrality to the issue as the opposition had intended to project. Also, the writer can
logically present his argument as being superior to the one presented by the opposition,
by showing that the opposition’s argument lacks the crucial link to the topic. Further, the
writer can highlight the insignificance of the opposition’s argument by exposing the
deficiencies found within the opposing argument.
C. THE EXAMPLE OF REFUTATION

Example #1: Elements of Rhetoric (By Richard Whately)

“If indeed very strong objections have obtained much currency, or have
been just stated by an opponent, so that what is asserted is likely to be
regarded as paradoxical, it may be advisable to begin with a
Refutation.”
As can be seen from the excerpt quoted above, refutation of an
objection should be placed in the midst of an argument. However, the
nearer it is to the beginning the more effective it is likely to be.
The Structure Of Arguments.

Arguments are the basis of persuasive communication. They are

combinations of statements made that are intended to change the
minds of other people.
All arguments have structure, which can be either deliberately
designed or may be discovered through analysis. At its simplest, an
argument has in introduction, body, refutation, premises, and
conclusions.
i. Introduction
Introduction provides background info on the controversy, introduces the
subject, and perhaps engages the reader's attention with a meaningful
anecdote. The introduction may also contain the claim and state your thesis.
ii. Body and refutation
Contains the evidence, begin each paragraph with a topic sentence that
directly support s your thesis, and include plenty of supporting evidence
(reasons, facts, examples, statistics, etc).and then consider including a rebuttal
paragraph.
iii. Premise
Premise of an argument is something that is put forward as a truth, but which is
not proven. Although it is not proven, it is assumed to be true (although how
universally accepted this truth may be another matter).
iv. Conclusion
Restate what your argument is and summarize what you’ve done in the essay
to support it here you can discuss what the implications of your arguments are.
 BIAS
Last, when you read opinion pieces,look for evidence of bias prejudice or unfair preconceived ideas.A bias
is a bad mental habit. It’s a way of thinking that might be very common and, on its surface, might even
appear rational – but in fact it gets in the way of logical thinking.
For example, if all of your friends believe something, you’re much more likely to believe it as well. That’s not a
very rational basis for believing something, but it is something that almost everyone experiences at some
point, and it’s a mistake that many people will repeat over and over again in different situations. In
philosophy and cognitive science, this error is called “bandwagoning,” and it’s one of the most well-known
cognitive biases.
What you consider a “bias” depends on what your standards of reasoning are. No one is capable of
complete rationality – we have to make decisions all the time based on limited information, and we use
instinct, emotions, and prior teachings as a guide. There’s nothing wrong with that. But we all have certain
standards or guides that help us think logically– not making big decisions while angry or tired, for example.
Cognitive biases are the mental tendencies that prevent us from living up to those standards and being
completely rational.
There are literally thousands of biases out there. Depending on your standards of rationality, different kinds of
mental habits will count as obstacles to that rationality, and this will determine your list of bias.
The lists will also vary because not everyone’s brain works in the same way. Your brain has its own particular
habits of thought, and they’re different from everyone else’s. That means there may be cognitive biases that
other people suffer from but you don’t, while your own biases may or may not be shared by others.
Biases are closely related to logical fallacies, but biases exist in a mind whereas logical fallacies exist in an
argument. One way to think of it would be that when you read a faulty argument, you may fall for its
fallacies because your cognitive biases are clouding your vision.
Therefore, you can ask yourself if the writer treats the issue fairly, whether there is sufficient evidence to
support the argument,and whether the writer appeals to your sense of reason or to your emotions (or
perhaps to both). There is nothing wrong with a writer’s appealing to the emotions, as long as you are aware
that it is going on.
ANALYSIS OF TEXTS
“The College Scam”
Paragraph 1-4

Established background and state of claim fact

1. What do Michael Dell, Mark Zuckerberg, Bill Gates and Mark Cuban have in common?
2. They’re all college dropouts.
3. Richard Branson, Simon Cowell and Peter Jennings have in common? [sic]
4. They never went to college at all.

in these paragraph we have a background and also claims of fact because

in these paragraph there are facts that are proven by writer by citing factual
evidence.
Paragraph 5

A state of claim value

5. But today all kids are told: To succeed, you must go to college

in this paragraph there is a claim of value because this sentence expresses an

idea about whether a case is true or not, in this sentence it refers to the
education sector, and this sentence will be explained in the next paragraph.
In the next paragraph will be accompanied by evidence to clarify the reasons
for the claim of value in this paragraph.
Paragraph 6 & 7

An evidence of quotation (based on 5th Paragraph)

6. Hillary Clinton tells students: “Graduates from four-year colleges earn nearly twice as much
as high school graduates, an estimated $1 million more.”
7. We hear that from people who run colleges. And it’s true. But it leaves out some important
facts.

from these paragraph can clarify the previous paragraph.

in this paragraph there is evidence of qoutation, because one of the kinds of the
evidence itself is quotation or testimony, which means the opinion of expert.
paragraph 6 explain about the evidence that graduates from four-year colleges earn nearly
twice as much
as high school graduates.then paragraph 7 reinforce the sentence with the opinions of people
who have run universities.
Paragraph 7 & 8

A state of claim value

7. We hear that from people who run colleges. And it’s true. But it leaves out
some important facts.
8. That’s why I say: For many people, college is a scam.

like the example of the claim of value in the previous paragraph, in this paragraph there is
also a claim of value regarding the opinion of the writer’s opinion about campus,the writer
said that for many people,college is scam.
Paragaph 9-14

An evidence of quotation (based on paragraph 7th - 8th paragraph)

9. I spoke with Richard Vedder, author of “Going Broke by Degree: Why College Costs
Too Much,” and Naomi Schafer Riley, who just published “Faculty Lounges and Other
Reasons Why You Won’t Get the College Education You Paid For.”
10. Vedder explained why that million-dollar comparison is ridiculous:
11.“People that go to college are different kind of people. . . (more) disciplined
. . . smarter. They did better in high school.”
12. They would have made more money even if they never went to college.
13. Riley says some college students don’t get what they pay for because their
professors have little incentive to teach.
14. “You think you’re paying for them to be in the classroom with you, but every
hour a professor spends in the classroom, he gets paid less. The incentives are all for
more research.”

based on the previous paragraph, where there are claims, especially claims of value. in
these paragraph will be explained more clearly, because it will be accompanied by
evidence. The writer gives some proof of his conversation with the author of “Going Broke by
Degree : Why College Cost Too Much,” and with Naomi Schafer Riley.
From the conversation we can conclude that this paragraph contains evidence of
quotation which means the opinion of experts.
Paragraph 19

A state of claim fact and an evidence of facts

19. “There are 80,000 bartenders in the United States with bachelor’s degrees,”
Vedder said. He says that 17 percent of baggage porters and bellhops have a college
degree, 15 percent of taxi and limo drivers. It’s hard to pay off student loans
with job like those. These days, many students graduate with big debts.

in this paragraph there are two examples, namely claims of facts and
evidence of fact. in the first sentence there are claims of fact because in that
sentence it explains an accurate and proven research results. And then in the
second sentence there is evidence that shows the facts. reinforce the claim of
fact in the first sentence by providing clear survey or investigation evidence.
Paragraph 22

A state of claim value

22. For some reason, this upsets the left. A Slate.com writer called Thiel’s grant a
“nasty idea” that leads students into “halting their intellectual development . . .
maintaining a narrow-minded focus on getting rich.”

in this paragraph there is a claim of value because it involves matters of opinion

and wrong ideas from the writer.
Paragraph 23

The refutation (based on paragraph 22th)

23. But Darren Zhu, a grant winner who quit Yale for the $100,000, told me,
“Building a start-up and learning the sort of hardships that are associated with
building a company is a much better education path.”

from this paragraph there is a refutation, the writer provides examples of

opinions to support the previous paragraph. This refutation is an example of a
logic type. the writer makes the opposite argument, and presents it in such a
way as to highlight the differences in the argument.
Paragraph 27

An evidence of good reasons

27. “Do kids learn anything at Harvard? People at Harvard tell us they do. . . .
They were bright when they entered Harvard, but do . . . seniors know more
than freshmen? The literacy rate among college graduates is lower today than it
was 15 or 20 years ago. It is kind of hard for people to respond in market fashion
when you don’t have full information.”

in this paragraph there is evidence of good reason, which is one type of

evidence, why it is evidence of good reason ? Because it explain or answer
questions in the previous sentence rationally.
Paragraph 28- 29

The refutation and problem solving / input (based on paragraph 27th)

28. Despite the scam, the Obama administration plans to increase the number of
students getting Pell grants by 50 percent. And even a darling of conservatives,
New Jersey Gov. Chris Christie, says college is must: “Graduating from high
school is just the first step.”
29. We need to wake people up.

in this paragraph there is refutation because in this paragraph there is the word
"Despite", which refutes and provides a solution for all the arguments about the
college scam.
ANALYSIS OF TEKS 2
“THE SEAT NOT TAKEN”
PARAGRAPH 1

A State of Claim of Value

1.At least twice a week I ride Amtrak’s high-speed Acela train from my home in New York City
to my teaching job in Providence, R.I. The route passes through a region of the country
populated by, statistics tell us, a significant segment of its most educated, affluent,
sophisticated and enlightened citizens.

In this paragraph there is claims of value because this paragraph involve matters of opini from
the writer,and also the writer tell us about his personal experince.
We can conclude the writer claming something good,from the sentence “most
educated,affluent,sophisticated and englihtened citizens” can support that is claims of
value,because the writer convey it from the statistical results.
Paragraph 2

2.Over the last four years, excluding summers, I have conducted a casual sociological
experiment in which I am both participant and observer. It’s a survey I began not because I
had some specific point to prove by gathering data to support it, but because I couldn’t
avoid becoming aware of an obvious, disquieting truth.

Evidence of value
I have conducted a casual sociological experiment in which I am both participant and
observer.
The refutation
It’s a survey I began not because I had some specific point to prove by gathering data to
support it, but because I couldn’t avoid becoming aware of an obvious, disquieting truth.

in this paragraph the author writes about the beginning of the life story he lived in that
country for four years to prove that he became a participant and also an observer.

And then the evidence was refuted by him that he not only had a specific point on that, but
the life he lived was clearly visible, and also confusing for him.
PARAGRAPH 4

A State of Claim Fact, Claim of Value, and The Evidence of Value

4.I’m a man of color, one of the few on the train and often the only one in the quiet car, and
I’ve concluded that color explains a lot about my experience. Unless the car is nearly full,
color will determine, even if it doesn’t exactly clarify, why 9 times out of 10 people will shun a
free seat if it means sitting beside me.

in this paragraph there are 3 parts,namely claim of fact,claim value,and

finally evidence of value, in the first sentence there is a claim of fact
because the writer is proven to be a miniority and proved by citing factual
evidence. meanwhile for the claim of value in the sentences by mentioned
i’ve cocnlude that color explains a lot about my experince because the
writer gives reasons why he can be exile and will be proven by the sentence,
“ why 9 times out of 10 people will shun a free seat if it means sitting beside
me”.
PARAGRAPH 5

A State Claim of Value, Claim of Fact, and The Evidence of Fact

5. Giving them and myself the benefit of the doubt, I can rule out excessive body odor or
bad breath; a hateful, intimidating scowl; hip-hop clothing; or a hideous deformity as
possible objections to my person. Considering also the cost of an Acela ticket, the fact that I
display no visible indications of religious preference and, finally, the numerous external signs
of middle-class membership I share with the majority of the passengers, color appears to be
a sufficient reason for the behavior I have recorded.

in this paragraph there are 3 parts,in the first sentence can be found claim of value.
Because the writer try to explaian with us his condition that he discriminated by people
around him and morality form in that region.and the next part is claim of fact following by
the text that mentioned “the fact that I display no visible indications of religious preference
and, finally, the numerous external signs of middle-class membership I share with the majority
of the passengers,”. because that sentence the writer say that he still discriminated while he
display no visible indications of region preference. And the the last part there is evidence of
fact which means the writer prove the previous sentence that color his have will be the
reason behavior of people around hiim and can be determine both of bad or good people
reaction to him.
PARAGRAPH 6

In this paragraph there are 4 parts,namely THE REFUTATION, CLAIM OF VALUE, CLAIM OF FACT, THE
EVIDENCE OF VALUE.
THE REFUTATION

6. Of course, I’m not registering a complaint about the privilege, conferred upon me by color, to
enjoy the luxury of an extra seat to myself.
CLAIM OF VALUE

I relish the opportunity to spread out, savor the privacy and quiet and work or gaze at the scenic New
England woods and coast. It’s a particularly appealing perk if I compare the train to air travel or any
other mode of transportation, besides walking or bicycling, for negotiating the mercilessly congested
Northeast Corridor.
CLAIM OF FACT

Still, in the year 2010, with an African-descended, brown president in the White House and a nation
confidently asserting its passage into a postracial era,

THE EVIDENCE OF VALUE

it strikes me as odd to ride beside a vacant seat, just about every time I embark on a threehour
journey each way, from home to work and back.
PARAGRAPH 7

A State of Claim of Value

7. I admit I look forward to the moment when other passengers, searching for a good seat, or
any seat at all on the busiest days, stop anxiously prowling the quiet-car aisle, the moment
when they have all settled elsewhere, including the ones who willfully blinded themselves to
the open seat beside me or were unconvinced of its availability when they passed by.

The Evidence of Value

I savor that precise moment when the train sighs and begins to glide away from Penn or
Providence Station, and I’m able to say to myself, with relative assurance, that the vacant
place beside me is free, free at last, or at least free until the next station. I can relax, prop open
my briefcase or rest papers, snacks or my arm in the unoccupied seat.

in this paragraph the author conveys how he feels with his present condition.
and after he got used to it he began to enjoy the difference.
and the statement was proven when the writer began to enjoy an empty seat
beside him that was left by the people around him to be emptied in order to
keep his distance from him.
PARAGRAPH 8

The Refutation

8. But the very pleasing moment of anticipation casts a shadow, because I

can’t accept the bounty of an extra seat without remembering why it’s
empty, without wondering if its emptiness isn’t something quite sad. And
quite dangerous, also, if left unexamined. Posters in the train, the station, the
subway warn: if you see something, say something.

in this paragraph the writer tries to give a refutation about the life he lived.
That state of affairs that happened to him is not a reason for him to grieve,
but the chair left empty beside him is an additional gift given to him. without
having to ask why the chair was empty. Grateful and enjoy, according to
him is the happiness of life.
 CONCLUSION
One of the best ways for us to improve our reading skill, especially reading
the persuasive text is to know how to read the text easily. By recognising
writer contents which are claims, kind of evidences, refutations and even
bias, we can improve reading skills to be more carefully focusing on details.
By knowing how to find claims, evidences, refutation in a persuasive text, we
can easily understand the opinions and goals of the writer's idea in the
article. We can find some information and new perspectives from the writer
which can determine the arguments and biases of a persuasive text. After
all, those are the important to learn how to read persuasive texts as well as
the elements that contained in.
 SUGGESTION
There are a lot of ways for students to understand the persuasive text. One
of the ways to understand the whole text and find the perspective of the
author are finding the detailed elements in a persuasive text. The reader
have to know the basic of material and pay attention to every sentence
that indicate one of the contents that we have studied before. Those
various contents will make you easier to analyze persuasive texts and
understand the information you want to look for in more depth.