Tech Updates

Designing a Moral Machine

 “Caring Computers”
 Michael and Susan Anderson deployed the first ethically programmed
in 2010
 It will balance conflicting duties via machine learning algorithms of
ethical examples and appropriate behavior
China says it has new surveillance camera technology
that can recognize you just from how you walk
Tech Update

 In India, some 120 people have died while taking selfies since 2011 while
trying to take the perfect selfie.
 A man was mauled to death by a bear
 A youth was crushed to death by a wild elephant
 Two people were drowned in a fish pond
 4 people were mowed by a train

 Indian Institute of technology developed an

 Artificial Intelligence based app
 Analyses the environment of the user to detect danger

https://www.gadgetsnow.com/tech-news/iit-ropar-develops-app-to-prevent-selfie-deaths/articleshow/66565825.cms
Overview of Systems
Development
 Systems Development

 Activities that go into producing an

information systems solution to an
organizational or problem

 Structured kind of problem solved

with distinct activities
 Analysis
 Design
 Programming
 Testing
 Conversion
 Production
 Maintenance
System Analysis

 Analysis of a problem that a firms tries to solve with information

system
 Consists of the ff: defining the problem, identifying its causes,
specifying the solution & identifying the information requirements
 Systems Analysts creates a road map of the organization by
identifying the primary owners and users of data with its existing
software and hardware.
System Analysis

 A list of existing problems would be identified and the

system analysts would examine the paperwork,
procedures and documents.
 Afterwards, a solution would be done that requires
building a new information system or improve an existing
one
 Feasibility Study – determine whether the solution
proposed would be achievable from a financial, technical
and organizational standpoint.
Information Requirements

 Composed of identifying who needs what information, where, when

and how.
 Analysis of requirements defines the objectives of the new or
modified system.
 Faulty requirement analysis is a leading cause of systems failure and
high systems development costs
Systems Design

 Overall plan or model for that system which

consists of all the specifications that give its
system its form and structure
 System Designer details the system
specifications that delivers the identified
functions during system analysis
 Addresses all managerial, organizational and
technological components of a system solution
Systems Design Specification
Completing the Systems Development
Process
 Programming – system specifications prepared during the design stage
translated into software program code
 Testing – conducted to determine if the system produces the right
results. May results in re-designing if the results are not favorable
 Three Types of Activities:

a) Unit Testing – testing each program separately in the

system (guarantee error-free system)
b) System Testing – tests the functionality of the
information system as a whole
c) Acceptance Testing – final certification that the system
is ready to be used in production testing
Completing the Systems Development
Process

 Production – once the new system is installed and conversion is

complete
 Users and technical specialists determine how well the system is
working
 Maintenance – any change in hardware, software, documentation or
procedures to a production system to correct errors, meet new
requirements or improve processing efficiency
Completing the Systems Development
Process

 Conversion – process of changing from old to new system

 Four Strategies

a) Parallel Strategy – old and new system are run in parallel

for a time until all new functionalities are working
b) Direct Cutover Strategy – old system is replaced by a
new system on an appointed day (risky approach)
c) Pilot Study Strategy – introduces the new system to only
a limited area (certain department or unit).
d) Phased Approach Strategy – introduces a new system in
stages either by function or organizational unit
Systems Development Process
 Alternative Systems Building Approaches

Traditional Systems Life Cycle

Prototyping

Application Software Packages

End User Development

Outsourcing
Traditional Systems Life Cycle

Oldest Method for developing information systems

Phased approach – divides the development into formal stages

Formal division of labor

Emphasizes formal documentation and paperwork (every stage)

Costly

Time Consuming

Inflexible

Waterfall approach

Not suitable for less structured and individualized systems

Prototyping

 Prototyping consists of building an experimental system rapidly and

inexpensively for end users to evaluate.
 By interacting with the prototype, users can get a better idea of their
information requirements.
 It has been said that prototyping replaces unplanned rework with planned
iteration, with each version more accurately reflecting users’ requirements.

https://www.incimages.com/uploaded_files/image/970x450/develop-a-prototype-pan_6699.jpg
Prototyping
Stages

Operational
Yes
Develop a Prototype
Identify Basic Use the
working User Satisfied
Requirements prototype Revise and
prototype
No enhance the
prototype

https://blog.dragoninnovation.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/02/prototype-stages.gif
Advantages and Disadvantages of
Prototyping
 Often used for designing an information system’s end-user interface (the part
of the system with which end users interact, such as online display and data
entry screens, reports, or Web pages).
 It is more likely to produce systems that fulfil user requirements.
 Management may not see the need for reprogramming, redesign, or full
documentation and testing to build a polished production system.
 May not easily accommodate large quantities of data or a large number of
users in a production environment.
End User development

 Some types of information systems can be developed by end users with little
or no formal assistance from technical specialists. For the hoi polloi
 A series of software tools categorized as fourth-generation languages makes
this possible.
 Fourth-generation languages are software tools that enable end users to
create reports or develop software applications with minimal or no technical
assistance.
 Procedural languages require specification of the sequence of steps, or procedures,
that tell the computer what to do and how to do it.
 Nonprocedural languages need only specify what has to be accomplished rather
than provide details about how to carry out the task.
End User development
APPLICATION SOFTWARE PACKAGES

 Much of today’s software is not developed in-house but is purchased from

external sources.
 Payroll, accounting, inventory,etc.
 Customization features allow a software package to be modified to meet an
organization’s unique requirements without destroying the integrity of the
packaged software.
 The package evaluation process often is based on a Request for Proposal
(RFP), which is a detailed list of questions submitted to packaged-software
vendors.
 If the organization’s requirements conflict with the way the package works
and the package cannot be customized, the organization will have to adapt to
the package and change its procedures.
OUTSOURCING

 Cloud computing and SaaS providers are one form of outsourcing.

 The outsourcing vendor might be domestic or in another country.
 More ideal for companies instead of hiring and training a team for small projects.
 A skilled programmer in India or Russia earns about USD $9,000 per year, compared
to $65,000 per year for a comparable programmer in the United States.

https://encrypted-tbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcT4dcpyv-d1lV-vHldeTetgX9QTvuDQFje7bK9B-b55Uh3jCtEFhg
  Very high failure rate among information
systems projects.
 Only 29% of all technology investments were
completed on time, on budget, and with all
the features and functions originally specified.
 On average, private sector projects are
underestimated by one-half in terms of budget
Importance of and time required to deliver the complete
Project system.

Management  Runaway projects: 30%–40% IT projects

 Far Exceed schedule, budget
 Fail to perform as specified

 Types of system failure

 Fail to capture essential business
requirements
 Fail to provide organizational benefits
 Complicated, poorly organized user
interface
 Inaccurate or inconsistent data
 Cost Overruns

Consequences of
Poor Project Time Slippage
Management
Technical shortfalls
impairing performance

Failure to obtain
anticipated benefits
Information Systems Plan
– Identifies systems projects that will deliver
most business value, links development to
business plan

– Road map indicating direction of systems

development, includes:
• Purpose of plan
• Strategic business plan rationale
• Current systems/situation
• New developments
• Management strategy
• Implementation plan
• Budget
 Critical Success Factors (CSFs)

CSFs are shaped by the industry, the firm, the

The strategic analysis, or critical success
factors, approach argues that an
organization’s information requirements
are determined by a small number of
critical success factors (CSFs) of
managers.
If these goals can be attained, success of
the firm or organization is assured.
manager, and the broader environment. For
example, CSFs for the automobile industry
might include styling, quality, and cost to
meet the goals of increasing market share
and raising profits. New information systems
should focus on providing information that
helps the firm meet these goals.
 Using CSFs to
Develop Systems

 The CSF approach relies

on interviews with key
managers to identify
their CSFs. Individual
CSFs are aggregated to
develop CSFs for the
entire firm. Systems can
then be built to deliver
information on these
CSFs.
  Used to evaluate alternative system projects

 Inventories all of the organization’s information

Portfolio Analysis systems projects and assets

 Each system has profile of risk and benefit

 High benefit, low risk
 High benefit, high risk
 Low benefit, low risk
 Low benefit, high risk

 To improve return on portfolio, balance risk and

return from systems investments
 A System Portfolio

 Companies should examine their portfolio of projects

in terms of potential benefits and likely risks. Certain
kinds of projects should be avoided altogether and
others developed rapidly. There is no ideal mix.
Companies in different industries have different
profiles.
Scoring Models
• Used to evaluate alternative system projects, especially when many criteria exist
• Assigns weights to various features of system and calculates weighted totals

CRITERIA WEIGHT SYSTEM A % SYSTEM A SYSTEM B % SYSTEM B

SCORE SCORE
Online order entry 4 67 268 73 292

Customer credit check 3 66 198 59 177

Inventory check 4 72 288 81 324

Warehouse receiving 2 71 142 75 150

ETC

GRAND TOTALS 3128 3300

 Information Systems and Cost benefit
 COSTS
 Hardware
 Telecommunications
 Software Services
 Personnel
 TANGIBLE BENEFITS (COST SAVINGS)
 Increased productivity
 Lower operational costs
 Reduced workforce
 Lower computer expenses
 Lower outside vendor costs
 Lower clerical and professional costs
 Reduced rate of growth in expenses
 Reduced facility costs
 INTANGIBLE BENEFITS
 Improved asset utilization
 Improved resource control
 Improved organizational planning
 Increased organizational flexibility
 More timely information
 More information
 Increased organizational learning
 Legal requirements attained
 Enhanced employee goodwill
 Increased job satisfaction
 Improved decision making
 Improved operations
 Higher client satisfaction
 Better corporate image