PowerPoint® Lecture Slides

prepared by
Janice Meeking,
Mount Royal College

CHAPTER 13
The Peripheral
Nervous
System and
Reflex Activity:
Part D
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Motor Endings

• PNS elements that activate effectors by

releasing neurotransmitters

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Review of Innervation of Skeletal Muscle

• Takes place at a neuromusclular junction

• Acetylcholine (ACh) is the neurotransmitter
• ACh binds to receptors, resulting in:
• Movement of Na+ and K+ across the
membrane
• Depolarization of the muscle cell
• An end plate potential, which triggers an action
potential

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 Myelinated axon
Action of motor neuron
potential (AP) Axon terminal of
neuromuscular
Nucleus junction
1 Action potential arrives Sarcolemma of
at axon terminal of motor the muscle fiber
neuron.

2 Voltage-gated Ca2+
channels open and Ca2+
enters the axon terminal. Ca2+ Synaptic vesicle
Ca2+
containing ACh
3 Ca2+ entry causes
Axon terminal Mitochondrion
some synaptic vesicles to
of motor neuron Synaptic cleft
release their contents
(acetylcholine) Fusing synaptic
by exocytosis. vesicles

4 Acetylcholine, a ACh Junctional

folds of
neurotransmitter, diffuses
sarcolemma
across the synaptic cleft
and binds to receptors in Sarcoplasm of
the sarcolemma. muscle fiber
Na+ K+
Postsynaptic membrane
5 ACh binding opens ion
ion channel opens;
channels that allow ions pass.
simultaneous passage of
Na+ into the muscle fiber
and K+ out of the muscle ACh Degraded ACh
fiber. Na+ Postsynaptic membrane
ion channel closed;
6 ACh effects are ions cannot pass.
terminated by its K+
enzymatic breakdown in
Acetylcholinesterase
the synaptic cleft by
acetylcholinesterase.

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 9.8

 Review of Innervation of Visceral Muscle
and Glands
• Autonomic motor endings and visceral
effectors are simpler than somatic junctions
• Branches form synapses en passant via
varicosities
• Acetylcholine and norepinephrine act
indirectly via second messengers
• Visceral motor responses are slower than
somatic responses

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 Varicosities

Autonomic Smooth
nerve fibers muscle
innervate cell
most smooth
muscle fibers.

Synaptic Mitochondrion Varicosities release

vesicles their neurotransmitters
into a wide synaptic
cleft (a diffuse junction).

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 9.27

 Levels of Motor Control

• Segmental level
• Projection level
• Precommand level

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 Precommand Level
(highest)
• Cerebellum and basal
nuclei
• Programs and instructions
(modified by feedback)
Internal
Feedback
feedback
Projection Level (middle)
• Motor cortex (pyramidal
system) and brain stem
nuclei (vestibular, red,
reticular formation, etc.)
• Convey instructions to
spinal cord motor neurons
and send a copy of that
information to higher levels

Segmental Level (lowest)

• Spinal cord
• Contains central pattern
generators (CPGs)

Sensory Reflex activity Motor

input output
(a) Levels of motor control and their interactions

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 13.13a

 Segmental Level

• The lowest level of the motor hierarchy

• Central pattern generators (CPGs): segmental
circuits that activate networks of ventral horn
neurons to stimulate specific groups of
muscles
• Controls locomotion and specific, oft-repeated
motor activity

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 Projection Level

• Consists of:
• Upper motor neurons that direct the direct
(pyramidal) system to produce voluntary
skeletal muscle movements
• Brain stem motor areas that oversee the
indirect (extrapyramidal) system to control
reflex and CPG-controlled motor actions
• Projection motor pathways keep higher
command levels informed of what is
happening

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 Precommand Level

• Neurons in the cerebellum and basal nuclei

• Regulate motor activity
• Precisely start or stop movements
• Coordinate movements with posture
• Block unwanted movements
• Monitor muscle tone
• Perform unconscious planning and discharge
in advance of willed movements

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Precommand Level

• Cerebellum
• Acts on motor pathways through projection
areas of the brain stem
• Acts on the motor cortex via the thalamus
• Basal nuclei
• Inhibit various motor centers under resting
conditions

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Precommand Level
(highest)
• Cerebellum and basal
nuclei
• Programs and instructions
(modified by feedback)
Internal
Feedback
feedback
Projection Level (middle)
• Motor cortex (pyramidal
system) and brain stem
nuclei (vestibular, red,
reticular formation, etc.)
• Convey instructions to
spinal cord motor neurons
and send a copy of that
information to higher levels

Segmental Level (lowest)

• Spinal cord
• Contains central pattern
generators (CPGs)

Sensory Reflex activity Motor

input output
(a) Levels of motor control and their interactions

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 13.13a

 Precommand level
• Cerebellum
• Basal nuclei

Projection level
• Primary motor cortex
• Brain stem nuclei
Segmental level
• Spinal cord

(b) Structures involved

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 13.13b
 Reflexes

• Inborn (intrinsic) reflex: a rapid, involuntary,

predictable motor response to a stimulus
• Learned (acquired) reflexes result from
practice or repetition,
• Example: driving skills

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 Reflex Arc

• Components of a reflex arc (neural path)

1. Receptor—site of stimulus action
2. Sensory neuron—transmits afferent impulses to the
CNS
3. Integration center—either monosynaptic or
polysynaptic region within the CNS
4. Motor neuron—conducts efferent impulses from the
integration center to an effector organ
5. Effector—muscle fiber or gland cell that responds to
the efferent impulses by contracting or secreting

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Stimulus

Skin

1 Receptor Interneuron

2 Sensory neuron

3 Integration center

4 Motor neuron

5 Effector

Spinal cord
(in cross section)

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 13.14

 Spinal Reflexes

• Spinal somatic reflexes

• Integration center is in the spinal cord
• Effectors are skeletal muscle
• Testing of somatic reflexes is important
clinically to assess the condition of the
nervous system

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 Stretch and Golgi Tendon Reflexes

• For skeletal muscle activity to be smoothly

coordinated, proprioceptor input is necessary
• Muscle spindles inform the nervous system of
the length of the muscle
• Golgi tendon organs inform the brain as to the
amount of tension in the muscle and tendons

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Muscle Spindles

• Composed of 3–10 short intrafusal muscle

fibers in a connective tissue capsule
• Intrafusal fibers
• Noncontractile in their central regions (lack
myofilaments)
• Wrapped with two types of afferent endings:
primary sensory endings of type Ia fibers and
secondary sensory endings of type II fibers

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Muscle Spindles

• Contractile end regions are innervated by

gamma () efferent fibers that maintain
spindle sensitivity
• Note: extrafusal fibers (contractile muscle
fibers) are innervated by alpha () efferent
fibers

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 Secondary sensory Efferent (motor)
endings (type II fiber) fiber to muscle spindle

 Efferent (motor)
Primary sensory fiber to extrafusal
endings (type Ia muscle fibers
fiber) Extrafusal muscle
Muscle spindle fiber

Intrafusal muscle
Connective fibers
tissue capsule

Sensory fiber

Golgi tendon
organ Tendon

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 13.15

 Muscle Spindles

• Excited in two ways:

1. External stretch of muscle and muscle
spindle
2. Internal stretch of muscle spindle:
• Activating the  motor neurons stimulates
the ends to contract, thereby stretching the
spindle
• Stretch causes an increased rate of
impulses in Ia fibers

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Muscle
spindle
Intrafusal
muscle fiber

Primary
sensory (la)
nerve fiber
Extrafusal
muscle fiber

Time Time

(a) Unstretched (b) Stretched

muscle. Action muscle. Stretching
potentials (APs) activates the muscle
are generated at spindle, increasing
a constant rate in the rate of APs.
the associated
sensory (la) fiber.

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 13.16a, b

 Muscle Spindles

• Contracting the muscle reduces tension on

the muscle spindle
• Sensitivity would be lost unless the muscle
spindle is shortened by impulses in the 
motor neurons
• – coactivation maintains the tension and
sensitivity of the spindle during muscle
contraction

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Time Time

(c) Only motor (d) - Coactivation.

neurons activated. Both extrafusal and
Only the extrafusal intrafusal muscle
muscle fibers contract. fibers contract.
The muscle spindle Muscle spindle
becomes slack and no tension is main-
APs are fired. It is tained and it can
unable to signal further still signal changes
length changes. in length.

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 13.16c, d

 Stretch Reflexes

• Maintain muscle tone in large postural

muscles
• Cause muscle contraction in response to
increased muscle length (stretch)

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Stretch Reflexes

• How a stretch reflex works:

• Stretch activates the muscle spindle
• IIa sensory neurons synapse directly with 
motor neurons in the spinal cord
•  motor neurons cause the stretched muscle
to contract
• All stretch reflexes are monosynaptic and
ipsilateral

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 Stretch Reflexes

• Reciprocal inhibition also occurs—IIa fibers

synapse with interneurons that inhibit the 
motor neurons of antagonistic muscles
• Example: In the patellar reflex, the stretched
muscle (quadriceps) contracts and the
antagonists (hamstrings) relax

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Stretched muscle spindles initiate a stretch reflex,
causing contraction of the stretched muscle and
inhibition of its antagonist.
The events by which muscle stretch is damped

2 The sensory neurons synapse directly with alpha

1 When muscle spindles are activated motor neurons (red), which excite extrafusal fibers
by stretch, the associated sensory of the stretched muscle. Afferent fibers also
neurons (blue) transmit afferent impulses synapse with interneurons (green) that inhibit motor
at higher frequency to the spinal cord. neurons (purple) controlling antagonistic muscles.
Sensory
neuron Cell body of
sensory neuron
Initial stimulus
(muscle stretch)

Muscle spindle
Antagonist muscle
3a Efferent impulses of alpha motor neurons
cause the stretched muscle to contract,
which resists or reverses the stretch.
Spinal cord
3b Efferent impulses of alpha motor
neurons to antagonist muscles are
reduced (reciprocal inhibition).

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 13.17 (1 of 2)

 Stretched muscle spindles initiate a stretch reflex,
causing contraction of the stretched muscle and
inhibition of its antagonist.
The events by which muscle stretch is damped

1 When muscle spindles are activated

by stretch, the associated sensory
neurons (blue) transmit afferent impulses
at higher frequency to the spinal cord.
Sensory
neuron Cell body of
sensory neuron
Initial stimulus
(muscle stretch)

Spinal cord
Muscle spindle
Antagonist muscle

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 13.17 (1 of 2), step1

 Stretched muscle spindles initiate a stretch reflex,
causing contraction of the stretched muscle and
inhibition of its antagonist.
The events by which muscle stretch is damped

2 The sensory neurons synapse directly with alpha

1 When muscle spindles are activated motor neurons (red), which excite extrafusal fibers
by stretch, the associated sensory of the stretched muscle. Afferent fibers also
neurons (blue) transmit afferent impulses synapse with interneurons (green) that inhibit motor
at higher frequency to the spinal cord. neurons (purple) controlling antagonistic muscles.
Sensory
neuron Cell body of
sensory neuron
Initial stimulus
(muscle stretch)

Spinal cord
Muscle spindle
Antagonist muscle

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 13.17 (1 of 2), step 2

 Stretched muscle spindles initiate a stretch reflex,
causing contraction of the stretched muscle and
inhibition of its antagonist.
The events by which muscle stretch is damped

2 The sensory neurons synapse directly with alpha

1 When muscle spindles are activated motor neurons (red), which excite extrafusal fibers
by stretch, the associated sensory of the stretched muscle. Afferent fibers also
neurons (blue) transmit afferent impulses synapse with interneurons (green) that inhibit motor
at higher frequency to the spinal cord. neurons (purple) controlling antagonistic muscles.
Sensory
neuron Cell body of
sensory neuron
Initial stimulus
(muscle stretch)

Spinal cord
Muscle spindle
Antagonist muscle
3a Efferent impulses of alpha motor neurons
cause the stretched muscle to contract,
which resists or reverses the stretch.

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 13.17 (1 of 2), step 3a

 Stretched muscle spindles initiate a stretch reflex,
causing contraction of the stretched muscle and
inhibition of its antagonist.
The events by which muscle stretch is damped

2 The sensory neurons synapse directly with alpha

1 When muscle spindles are activated motor neurons (red), which excite extrafusal fibers
by stretch, the associated sensory of the stretched muscle. Afferent fibers also
neurons (blue) transmit afferent impulses synapse with interneurons (green) that inhibit motor
at higher frequency to the spinal cord. neurons (purple) controlling antagonistic muscles.
Sensory
neuron Cell body of
sensory neuron
Initial stimulus
(muscle stretch)

Muscle spindle
Antagonist muscle
3a Efferent impulses of alpha motor neurons
cause the stretched muscle to contract,
which resists or reverses the stretch.
Spinal cord
3b Efferent impulses of alpha motor
neurons to antagonist muscles are
reduced (reciprocal inhibition).

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 13.17 (1 of 2), step 3b

 The patellar (knee-jerk) reflex—a specific example of a stretch reflex

Quadriceps
3a 3b
(extensors) 3b
1
Patella
Muscle Spinal cord
spindle (L2–L4)
1 Tapping the patellar ligament excites
Hamstrings Patellar muscle spindles in the quadriceps.
(flexors) ligament
2 Afferent impulses (blue) travel to the
spinal cord, where synapses occur with
motor neurons and interneurons.
3a The motor neurons (red) send
activating impulses to the quadriceps
causing it to contract, extending the
+ Excitatory synapse knee.
– Inhibitory synapse
3b The interneurons (green) make
inhibitory synapses with ventral horn
neurons (purple) that prevent the
antagonist muscles (hamstrings) from
resisting the contraction of the
quadriceps.

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 13.17 (2 of 2)

 The patellar (knee-jerk) reflex—a specific example of a stretch reflex

Quadriceps
(extensors)
1
Patella
Muscle Spinal cord
spindle (L2–L4)
1 Tapping the patellar ligament excites
Hamstrings Patellar muscle spindles in the quadriceps.
(flexors) ligament

+ Excitatory synapse
– Inhibitory synapse

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 13.17 (2 of 2), step 1

 The patellar (knee-jerk) reflex—a specific example of a stretch reflex

Quadriceps
(extensors)
1
Patella
Muscle Spinal cord
spindle (L2–L4)
1 Tapping the patellar ligament excites
Hamstrings Patellar muscle spindles in the quadriceps.
(flexors) ligament
2 Afferent impulses (blue) travel to the
spinal cord, where synapses occur with
motor neurons and interneurons.

+ Excitatory synapse
– Inhibitory synapse

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 13.17 (2 of 2), step 2

 The patellar (knee-jerk) reflex—a specific example of a stretch reflex

Quadriceps
3a
(extensors)
1
Patella
Muscle Spinal cord
spindle (L2–L4)
1 Tapping the patellar ligament excites
Hamstrings Patellar muscle spindles in the quadriceps.
(flexors) ligament
2 Afferent impulses (blue) travel to the
spinal cord, where synapses occur with
motor neurons and interneurons.
3a The motor neurons (red) send
activating impulses to the quadriceps
causing it to contract, extending the
+ Excitatory synapse knee.
– Inhibitory synapse

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 13.17 (2 of 2), step 3a

 The patellar (knee-jerk) reflex—a specific example of a stretch reflex

Quadriceps
3a 3b
(extensors) 3b
1
Patella
Muscle Spinal cord
spindle (L2–L4)
1 Tapping the patellar ligament excites
Hamstrings Patellar muscle spindles in the quadriceps.
(flexors) ligament
2 Afferent impulses (blue) travel to the
spinal cord, where synapses occur with
motor neurons and interneurons.
3a The motor neurons (red) send
activating impulses to the quadriceps
causing it to contract, extending the
+ Excitatory synapse knee.
– Inhibitory synapse
3b The interneurons (green) make
inhibitory synapses with ventral horn
neurons (purple) that prevent the
antagonist muscles (hamstrings) from
resisting the contraction of the
quadriceps.

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 13.17 (2 of 2), step 3b

 Golgi Tendon Reflexes

• Polysynaptic reflexes
• Help to prevent damage due to excessive
stretch
• Important for smooth onset and termination of
muscle contraction

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 Golgi Tendon Reflexes

• Produce muscle relaxation (lengthening) in response

to tension
• Contraction or passive stretch activates Golgi tendon
organs
• Afferent impulses are transmitted to spinal cord
• Contracting muscle relaxes and the antagonist
contracts (reciprocal activation)
• Information transmitted simultaneously to the
cerebellum is used to adjust muscle tension

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 1 Quadriceps strongly 2 Afferent fibers synapse
contracts. Golgi tendon with interneurons in the
organs are activated. spinal cord.
Interneurons

Quadriceps
(extensors)

Spinal cord
Golgi
tendon
organ
Hamstrings
(flexors)
3a Efferent impulses 3b Efferent
to muscle with impulses to
+ Excitatory synapse
stretched tendon are antagonist
damped. Muscle muscle cause
– Inhibitory synapse
relaxes, reducing it to contract.
tension.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 13.18
 1 Quadriceps strongly
contracts. Golgi tendon
organs are activated.
Interneurons

Quadriceps
(extensors)

Spinal cord
Golgi
tendon
organ
Hamstrings
(flexors)

+ Excitatory synapse
– Inhibitory synapse

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 13.18, step 1

 1 Quadriceps strongly 2 Afferent fibers synapse
contracts. Golgi tendon with interneurons in the
organs are activated. spinal cord.
Interneurons

Quadriceps
(extensors)

Spinal cord
Golgi
tendon
organ
Hamstrings
(flexors)

+ Excitatory synapse
– Inhibitory synapse

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 13.18, step 2

 1 Quadriceps strongly 2 Afferent fibers synapse
contracts. Golgi tendon with interneurons in the
organs are activated. spinal cord.
Interneurons

Quadriceps
(extensors)

Spinal cord
Golgi
tendon
organ
Hamstrings
(flexors)
3a Efferent impulses
to muscle with
+ Excitatory synapse
stretched tendon are
damped. Muscle
– Inhibitory synapse
relaxes, reducing
tension.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 13.18, step 3a
 1 Quadriceps strongly 2 Afferent fibers synapse
contracts. Golgi tendon with interneurons in the
organs are activated. spinal cord.
Interneurons

Quadriceps
(extensors)

Spinal cord
Golgi
tendon
organ
Hamstrings
(flexors)
3a Efferent impulses 3b Efferent
to muscle with impulses to
+ Excitatory synapse
stretched tendon are antagonist
damped. Muscle muscle cause
– Inhibitory synapse
relaxes, reducing it to contract.
tension.
Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 13.18, step 3b
 Flexor and Crossed-Extensor Reflexes

• Flexor (withdrawal) reflex

• Initiated by a painful stimulus
• Causes automatic withdrawal of the
threatened body part
• Ipsilateral and polysynaptic

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 Flexor and Crossed-Extensor Reflexes

• Crossed extensor reflex

• Occurs with flexor reflexes in weight-bearing
limbs to maintain balance
• Consists of an ipsilateral flexor reflex and a
contralateral extensor reflex
• The stimulated side is withdrawn (flexed)
• The contralateral side is extended

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 + Excitatory synapse
– Inhibitory synapse
Interneurons

Efferent
Afferent fibers
fiber
Efferent
fibers

Extensor
Flexor
inhibited Arm
inhibited
Flexor movements
Extensor
stimulated stimulated

Site of reciprocal
activation: At the
Site of stimulus: a noxious same time, the
stimulus causes a flexor extensor muscles
reflex on the same side, on the opposite
withdrawing that limb. side are activated.

Copyright © 2010 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 13.19

 Superficial Reflexes

• Elicited by gentle cutaneous stimulation

• Depend on upper motor pathways and cord-
level reflex arcs

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 Superficial Reflexes

• Plantar reflex
• Stimulus: stroking lateral aspect of the sole of
the foot
• Response: downward flexion of the toes
• Tests for function of corticospinal tracts

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 Superficial Reflexes

• Babinski’s sign
• Stimulus: as above
• Response: dorsiflexion of hallux and fanning of
toes
• Present in infants due to incomplete
myelination
• In adults, indicates corticospinal or motor
cortex damage

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 Superficial Reflexes

• Abdominal reflexes
• Cause contraction of abdominal muscles and
movement of the umbilicus in response to
stroking of the skin
• Vary in intensity from one person to another
• Absent when corticospinal tract lesions are
present

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 Developmental Aspects of the PNS

• Spinal nerves branch from the developing

spinal cord and neural crest cells
• Supply both motor and sensory fibers to
developing muscles to help direct their
maturation
• Cranial nerves innervate muscles of the head

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 Developmental Aspects of the PNS

• Distribution and growth of spinal nerves

correlate with the segmented body plan
• Sensory receptors atrophy with age and
muscle tone lessens due to loss of neurons,
decreased numbers of synapses per neuron,
and slower central processing
• Peripheral nerves remain viable throughout
life unless subjected to trauma

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