CAD/CAM

Geometric modelling
• Geometric modelling refers to computer compatible
and mathematical representation of geometry of an
entity
• only mathematical or only visible representation of
geometry is not enough
• Geometric modelling forms a basis for integration of
many of the CAD CAM activities
• one can give a mathematical definition of a curve
which is not computer compatible
• one may give purely visual representation of
geometric object without any mathematical
representation
• If two of the definitions i.e., computer
compatible and mathematical, are satisfied it can
be called as geometric modelling
• In co-ordinate geometry course, only
mathematical representation of entities, such as,
lines, circles, conical surfaces, cylindrical
surfaces, spherical surfaces, etc. have been
studied which are purely mathematical
representation
• what is intended to do with geometric objects in
CAD applications, cannot be fulfilled with only
mathematical representation (not computer
friendly)
• So we are looking for better definition
where we will be able to use
mathematical representation for doing
some calculations related to CAD CAM
and also use this representation for
visually displaying on computer screen
• There is another possibility of visually
displaying geometric entity on
computer screen without going into
Hidden surfaces removed
mathematical definition
• Purely by looking at a picture we
cannot make out whether it is 2D or
3D
• The above figure can be constructed
using a set of lines
• we have drawn the drawing using lines and
given it a 3D like effect so that it appears as 3D
figure
• The other possibility is we can construct it using
3D representation for a cuboid or a box and then
we can remove the hidden lines so that we can
be able to show a 3D figure as shown
• That means what you see is not what you think,
but how it is represented internally is of concern
• Many of the pictures or sceneries for
background for which we can create 3D effect
without any mathematical representation are
not of interest in CAD
• What we are looking is something which can give
us geometric definition at the same time it
should be computer friendly enough to do things
which we need to do as part of CAD CAM
applications which is the objective of studying
geometric modelling
• Geometric modelling is a vast subject, in terms of
studying this subject, we use to look at how
various geometric entities in terms of curves,
surfaces, and solids are represented
• The representational aspects of curves and
surfaces have some similarities
 Ex: The representation of curves and surfaces
together called as surface modelling or the
modelling of freeform curves and freeform surface
entities etc.
• suppose if we give a definition for a curve we can
extend it to surface which is one dimension higher
than curve
• we can extend representation of surface to solid
which is one dimension higher than surface but it is
usually not done for certain basic reasons
• we will look at those aspects why representation
for curves and surfaces is different compared to the
representation of solids
• if one is looking at curves and surfaces particularly,
he will be looking at some of the geometric entities;
which he is already aware of, such as, a line, circle
conical lines, a plane, cone, cylinder, sphere, etc.
• we are familiar with some aspects of these
geometries which are standard geometric entities
• CAD CAM deals with geometric modelling in
product design and manufacturing applications
• In CAD CAM one may have to deal with those
surface features or those surface entities which are
not in one of the standard form usually they are
called as freeform curves and surfaces
• Geometric modelling of any entity will start with known
forms
• After quick revision of the known forms, the modelling of
free form curves and surfaces will be the next step
• Once the complete representation for all types of entities
are available then one has to study about how those
representations can be used to automate certain design
and manufacturing applications
• study of curves, surfaces, and solids is not necessarily the
domain of CAD CAM course
• it is also a subject of courses in computer graphics where
one would be interested how to visually represent an
object and also use a mathematical definition but not
necessarily for design and manufacturing applications
• The subject of geometric modelling has evolved
along with computer graphics so we will see lot
of graphics related terminology and concepts
while studying geometric modelling
• one has to basically choose one of these three
combinations as representation for CAD CAM
applications
• implicit representation of circle we can say
that it is in the form
f(x, y) = 0
• explicit representation it is represented as
y = f(x)
• among these three representations each one
may have an advantage or disadvantage and
one representation may be more suitable for
CAD CAM applications than the other
• Whenever we represent a curve or a surface in a
parametric fashion. If there is one parameter like
‘r’ it can be classified as curve.
• If there are two parameters like u & w, it can be
classified as surface and we can extended it to
further higher dimensions
• if we have x, y, z which are functions of three
parameters, then they represent a solid object
• we have to look at the three types of
representations and identify which will be more
appropriate for CAD CAM applications
• it is believed that parametric is most widely used
• The first advantage of parametric representation is
that it completely separates the roles of dependent
and independent variables
• In implicit or explicit representation we have one
variable which is dependent on the other, where as
in parametric representation we are basically
looking at them independently
• Three coordinates can be independently written
and they can be changed if you want to change a
curved surface this is the major advantage of
parametric representation
• Instead of looking at the equations as a whole we
are looking at the independent aspects of x, y, z and
how they vary
• Another interesting aspect about independent variables is
that the equation of a given geometric entity can be
extended to higher dimensions very easily
• let's say given x = r cos (t); y = r sin (t); z = h and what
geometry these x, y, z represent?
• somebody may say it's a circle or cylinder or solid cylinder
• it can be anything based on the values of r, t, z.
• If r, t, z are 5, π, 20 are substituted in x, y, z we get unique x,
y, z values which is a point
• Out of given three parameters above, based on which
parameters actively vary, which ones are fixed, will decide
whether the three parametric equations for x, y, z will
represent whether a curve (or) surface (or) solid entity
• we can vary one parameter by keeping the other two
constant if we do that we are going for one dimension
higher than a single point.
 Ex: x = r cos (t); y= r sin (t); z = h
r = 5 ; - π ≤ t ≤ π ; z = 20 (forms circle)
• if instead of varying ‘t’, we may vary either ‘r’
or ‘h’ then we will get a straight line instead of
circle
• we get different entities by varying different
entities in x, y, r parametric equations
• If r = 5; - π ≤ t ≤ π ; 0 ≤ z ≤ 20. It represents a cylindrical
surface where the radius of cylinder fixed as 5 units
• when r, t varied and Z is fixed it represents a circular disc
(plane entity)
• when r, z varied and t is fixed it represents a rectangular
plane entity
• when 0 ≤ r ≤ 5 ; - π ≤ t ≤ π ; 0 ≤ z ≤ 20. it represents a solid
cylinder
• when 3 ≤ r ≤ 5 ; - π ≤ t ≤ π ; 0 ≤ z ≤ 20 it represents a solid
hollow cylinder
• when all the three parametric entities are varied we get a
solid object
• the same concept can be extended to higher dimensions
• For example we have a parametric representation
which is a function of four variables or more than 4
variables that may not have really a meaningful solid
object as far as geometric modelling is concerned but in
some cases it is used
• For example I would like to represent a solid cylinder
with representation 0 ≤ r ≤ 5 ; - π ≤ t ≤ π ; 0 ≤ z ≤ 20
which is moving in space, and we have a function ‘time’
to represent its motion now we have four variables that
is r, t, z, time.
• Like this one can extend a given representation to
higher dimensions
• But in most cases this kind of extension is used only for
curves and surfaces
• Same procedure can be used for any parametric
representations to get various models
• If you have a parametric equations with three variables it will
give a solid
• Another major advantage of parametric representation is that
it offers more degrees of freedom for controlling shape of
curves and surfaces
• Explicit form

Polynomial of
cubic nature
• Parametric form

• Advantage in the above two representations is, by giving

different values to P, Q, R, S we get different cubic curves
• same thing is true for parametric cubic curves, by
giving different values to a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h we get
different parametric cubic curves
• A designer has more variables to play with in the
case of parametric form than in case of explicit form
• one who is concerned with designing a curve for
specific application for designing a surface for
specific application would be interested to have as
many degrees of freedom as possible or as many
variables as possible to play with
• when we play with a, b, c, d we are only concerned
with x- coordinate and when we play with e, f, g, h
we are only concerned with y-coordinate so we
have independent roles of parameters
• Cubic form is one of the most commonly used representations
for representing many of the curves and surfaces
• the reason is whenever we have a curve or surface we look at
the continuity requirement that means we should be able to
differentiate the curve 2 times
• whenever we differentiate x and y first time we are looking at
how slope varies at any point on curve, when we differentiate
for the second time we are looking at curvature
• The second derivative of a function measures the concavity of
the curve.
• curvature information is important for many of the CAD CAM
applications
• if we go for one order higher than cubic that is quartic (4 th
order) where we have polynomial terms like u4 or x4 it really
doesn't have much purpose because mathematical
calculations become more complex
• Quartic curve may give curvature continuity one level higher
but that is not really needed for most of the applications
• in most of the cases we represent cubic forms
• another reason for using cubic form for
polynomials more commonly is that upto cubic we
can get closer form solutions and we can get
analytical solutions
• if we go for higher order than cubic then we have
to use numerical methods
• when numerical methods are used we have
associated mathematical problems and also there
are other complexities
• so cubic is minimum representation which serves
most of the applications and also we have
analytical solutions which are possible. so cubic
form is the most widely used representation
 Introduction
• Integration of computer science techniques
for engineering design
• Use of hardware/software
• Hardware: screen, mouse, keyboard, printer,
etc. which are meant for CAD activities
• Software: Autocad, Catia, etc.
• Drafting: drawing 2D/3D drawing on the
computer screen using lines & curves
• 3D modelling: drawing 3D model which is a
major part of CAD
• Visualization: Looking the component from
different angles
• Applications: analysis for forces acting,
stresses, deflections, simulation, CAD/CAM
applications, etc.
 Modelling
• Define object
• Relate different features/objects
• Contains all the information of features of the
object
• Example: A through hole is located at certain
distance from the origin defined at one of
corner of object
• CAD model in not static, based on
requirement it may undergo changes i.e.
increase/decrease in thickness of plate also
called as editing
 Requirements of modelling
• 3D modeling of any solid consists of modeling the
curves & surfaces which form such solid
• Solids are modeled by storing information of
constituent surfaces
• Surfaces play important role in defining the solids
• Features like hole, groove, slot, etc., will be on the
surfaces of any object
• when we talk about surfaces we also have talk
about the curves
• Unless we are able to represent the edges of any
surface we cannot represent that surface
• Displaying a solid consists of displaying all the
boundary surfaces
• When we are displaying a solid, we are
displaying it by displaying its boundary
surfaces one after another
• Storing the information of constituent
surfaces help us in displaying surfaces which
will thus help us in computing solid properties
such as moment of inertia, volume, weight,
etc.
• Surfaces will be modeled by storing the
information on the curves
• Modelling can also be said as giving all the
geometric description of surfaces and edges
• We will be studying how the various
projections can be obtained, how hidden
surfaces are removed, how hidden lines are
removed, how visualization of lines & curves
can be done
 Visualization
• Displaying modeled objects
• Map onto screen coordinates: For each and
every point present on the object find a
corresponding point on the screen
coordinates
4,0,0

3,0,0

0,0,0 5,0,0

0,0,0
Object with points
screen
• In engineering drawing orthographic
projections are sued
• But for visualization shaded view is needed

Hidden surfaces removed

• When display to be proper better to remove

hidden lines/hidden surfaces
 Analysis

Vehicle A Vehicle B

Vehicle A Vehicle B
• When A & B collide what stresses, forces,
deflection occurred on each vehicle can be
analyzed if we have models for these A & B
• Each analysis and simulation can be done
using suitable tools by importing the model to
analysis tools such as ANSYS, MATLAB,
ABAQUS, etc.
• Optimization of stresses, deflections, size,
weight, etc. can be using the analysis tools
 Rotating robo arm

• The motion of robo arm can be visualized by

modelling and simulating the motion
• A curves is drawn by joining a set of control
points
• A family of curves make a surface patch
• We cannot represent solid model unless we
represent curves and surfaces
• Any method of representing solid is always going
to have representation of curves and surfaces
embedded in it
• In this course we talk of different methods of
representing curves, surfaces, and solids