ORGANIC COMPOUNDS

Definition:

Organic compounds are those that have carbon atoms. In living

systems, large organic molecules, called macromolecules, can consist of
hundreds or thousands of atoms. Most macromolecules are polymers,
molecules that consist of a single unit (monomer) repeated many times.

Most larger organic molecules are polymers of smaller units:

(1) Carbohydrates – monosaccharides (simple sugars), (2) proteins – amino
acids, (3) fats – fatty acids & glycerol, and (4) nucleic acids – nucleotides.

Complex molecules can be formed by stringing carbon atoms together

in a straight line or by connecting carbons together to form rings. The presence
of nitrogen, oxygen, and other atoms adds variety to these carbon molecules.

Four important classes of organic molecules—carbohydrates, lipids,

proteins, and nucleic acids
 Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are organic compounds that contain only carbon
(C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O). They are the most common of the
four major types of organic compounds. There are thousands of
different carbohydrates, but they all consist of one or more smaller units
called monosaccharides.

Word origin: from Greek, monos: single + sacchar: sugar.

Synonym: monosaccharose, simple sugar.
 Carbohydrates are sugars that come in 2 main forms - simple and
complex. This is also referred to as simple sugars and starches.

Simple carbohydrates are called simple sugars. Sugars are found in a

variety of natural food sources including fruit, vegetables and milk, and
give food a sweet taste. But they also raise blood glucose levels quickly.
Sugars can be categorised as single sugars (monosaccharides), which
include glucose, fructose and galactose, or double sugars (disaccharides),
which include sucrose (table sugar), lactose and maltose.

Complex carbohydrates, also known as polysaccharides, are

starches formed by longer saccharide chains, which means they take
longer to break down.
Chemically, they usually comprise of three or more linked sugars.
 Monosaccharides
A simple sugar, example: fructose, glucose, and ribose.
The simplest form of carbohydrate; therefore, it cannot be broken down to simpler
sugars by hydrolysis.

A sugar that constitutes the building blocks of a more complex form of sugars such
as oligosaccharides and polysaccharides.

Monosaccharides are classified the type of carbonyl group they contain:

Aldose, -CHO (aldehyde) and Ketose, C=O (ketone)

The general formula for a monosaccharide is (CH2O)n ,where n can be any number
greater than two. For example, if n is 6, then the formula can be written C6H12O6. This is the
formula for the monosaccharide glucose. Molecules with the same chemical formula but
with atoms in a different arrangement are called isomers.
Monosaccharides can be classified by the number of carbon atoms they contain: diose
(2), triose (3), tetrose (4), pentose (5), hexose (6), heptose (7), and so on.
 If two monosaccharides bond together, they form a
carbohydrate called a disaccharide. Two monosaccharides will
bond together through a dehydration reaction, in which a water
molecule is lost. A dehydration reaction is a condensation
reaction, a chemical reaction in which two molecules combine to
form one single molecule, losing a small molecule in the process.
In the dehydration reaction, this small molecule is water. The
bond between two monosaccharides is known as a glycosidic
bond.
 Oligosaccharides
An oligosaccharide is a saccharide polymer containing a small
number (typically two to ten) of monosaccharides. Oligosaccharides can
have many functions; for example, they are commonly found on the
plasma membrane of animal cells where they can play a role in cell–cell
recognition. In general, they are found attached to compatible amino
acid side-chains in proteins or to lipids.

Oligosaccharides are often found as a component of glycoproteins

or glycolipids. They are often used as chemical markers on the outside of
cells, often for cell recognition. An example is ABO blood type specificity.
A and B blood types have two different oligosaccharide glycolipids
embedded in the cell membranes of the red blood cells, AB-type blood
has both, while O blood type has neither.
 Polysaccharides
Polysaccharides are long carbohydrate molecules of repeated monomer units
joined together by glycosidic bonds. A polysaccharide may contain anywhere from a
few monosaccharides to several thousand monosaccharides. Polysaccharides are also
called complex carbohydrates.

Starches are one of the more common polysaccharides. Starch is made up of a

mixture of amylose (15–20%) and amylopectin (80–85%). Amylose consists of a linear
chain of several hundred glucose molecules and amylopectin is a branched molecule
made of several thousand glucose units. Starches can be digested by hydrolysis
reactions, catalyzed by enzymes called amylases, which can break the glycosidic
bonds. Humans and other animals have amylases, so they can digest starches. Potato,
rice, wheat, and maize are major sources of starch in the human diet. The formations of
starches are the ways that plants store glucose. Glycogen is sometimes referred to as
animal starch. Glycogen is used for long-term energy storage in animal cells. Glycogen is
made primarily by the liver and the muscles.

The main functions of polysaccharides are to store energy and form structural
tissues.
 SUMMARY
Carbohydrates are a group of macromolecules that are a vital energy source for the cell and provide
structural support to plant cells, fungi, and all of the arthropods that include lobsters, crabs, shrimp, insects, and
spiders. Carbohydrates are classified as monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides depending on the
number of monomers in the molecule. Monosaccharides are linked by glycosidic bonds that are formed as a result
of dehydration reactions, forming disaccharides and polysaccharides with the elimination of a water molecule for
each bond formed.

Glucose, galactose, and fructose are common monosaccharides, whereas common disaccharides include
lactose, maltose, and sucrose. Starch and glycogen, examples of polysaccharides, are the storage forms of glucose
in plants and animals, respectively. The long polysaccharide chains may be branched or unbranched. Cellulose is an
example of an unbranched polysaccharide, whereas amylopectin, a constituent of starch, is a highly branched
molecule. Storage of glucose, in the form of polymers like starch of glycogen, makes it slightly less accessible for
metabolism; however, this prevents it from leaking out of the cell or creating a high osmotic pressure that could
cause excessive water uptake by the cell.
 Lipid
A lipid is an organic compound such as fat or oil. Organisms use lipids
to store energy, but lipids have other important roles as well. Lipids consist
of repeating units called fatty acids.
Fatty acids are organic compounds that have the general formula
CH3(CH2)nCOOH, where n usually ranges from 2 to 28 and is always an
even number. There are two types of fatty acids: saturated fatty acids and
unsaturated fatty acids.

Word origin: French lipide » Greek lipos, fat.

 Saturated Fatty Acids
In saturated fatty acids, carbon atoms are bonded to as many hydrogen atoms as possible.
This causes the molecules to form straight chains, as shown in Figure below. The straight chains can
be packed together very tightly, allowing them to store energy in a compact form. This explains why
saturated fatty acids are solids at room temperature. Animals use saturated fatty acids to store
energy.

Fatty Acids. Saturated fatty acids have straight chains, like the three fatty acids shown in the
upper left. Unsaturated fatty acids have bent chains, like all the other fatty acids in the figure.
 Unsaturated Fatty Acids
In unsaturated fatty acids, some carbon atoms are not bonded to as many
hydrogen atoms as possible. Instead, they are bonded to other groups of atoms. Wherever
carbon binds with these other groups of atoms, it causes chains to bend (see Figure
above). The bent chains cannot be packed together very tightly, so unsaturated fatty
acids are liquids at room temperature. Plants use unsaturated fatty acids to store energy.

These plant products all contain unsaturated fatty acids.

 Types of Lipids
Lipids may consist of fatty acids alone, or they may contain other molecules as well. For
example, some lipids contain alcohol or phosphate groups. They include

1. triglycerides: the main form of stored energy in animals.

2. phospholipids: the major components of cell membranes.
3. steroids: serve as chemical messengers and have other roles.

Lipids include a diverse group of compounds that are largely nonpolar in nature. This is
because they are hydrocarbons that include mostly nonpolar carbon–carbon or carbon–hydrogen
bonds. Non-polar molecules are hydrophobic (“water fearing”), or insoluble in water. Lipids perform
many different functions in a cell. Cells store energy for long-term use in the form of fats. Lipids also
provide insulation from the environment for plants and animals.

Lipids and Diet

Humans need lipids for many vital functions, such as storing energy and forming cell
membranes. Lipids can also supply cells with energy. In fact, a gram of lipids supplies more than twice
as much energy as a gram of carbohydrates or proteins. Lipids are necessary in the diet for most of
these functions. Although the human body can manufacture most of the lipids it needs, there are
others, called essential fatty acids, that must be consumed in food. Essential fatty acids include
omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids. Both of these fatty acids are needed for important biological
processes, not just for energy.
 SUMMARY
Lipids are a class of macromolecules that are nonpolar and hydrophobic in nature. Major types include
fats and oils, waxes, phospholipids, and steroids. Fats are a stored form of energy and are also known as
triacylglycerols or triglycerides. Fats are made up of fatty acids and either glycerol or sphingosine.

Fatty acids may be unsaturated or saturated, depending on the presence or absence of double bonds in the
hydrocarbon chain. If only single bonds are present, they are known as saturated fatty acids. Unsaturated fatty acids
may have one or more double bonds in the hydrocarbon chain. Phospholipids make up the matrix of membranes.
They have a glycerol or sphingosine backbone to which two fatty acid chains and a phosphate-containing group are
attached. Steroids are another class of lipids.

Their basic structure has four fused carbon rings. Cholesterol is a type of steroid and is an important
constituent of the plasma membrane, where it helps to maintain the fluid nature of the membrane. It is also the
precursor of steroid hormones such as testosterone.
 Proteins
A protein is an organic compound made up of small
molecules called amino acids. There are 20 different amino
acids commonly found in the proteins of living organisms.
Small proteins may contain just a few hundred amino acids,
whereas large proteins may contain thousands of amino
acids. The largest known proteins are titins, found in muscle,
which are composed from over 27,000 amino acids.
 Protein Structure
When amino acids bind
together, they form a long chain called
a polypeptide. A protein consists of one
or more polypeptide chains. A protein
may have up to four levels of structure.
The lowest level, a protein’s primary
structure, is its sequence of amino
acids. Higher levels of protein structure
are described in Figure below. The
complex structures of different proteins
give them unique properties, which
they need to carry out their various jobs
in living organisms.
 Functions of Proteins
Proteins play many important roles in
living things. Some proteins help cells keep their
shape (structural proteins), some, such as
connective and motor proteins, make up
muscle tissues, and some transport items in and
out of cells (transport proteins). Some proteins
act as signals, and other proteins receive those
signals. Enzymes are proteins that speed up
chemical reactions in cells. Other proteins are
antibodies, which bind to foreign substances
such as bacteria and target them for
destruction. Still other proteins carry messages
or transport materials. For example, human red
blood cells contain a protein called
hemoglobin, which binds with oxygen.
Hemoglobin allows the blood to carry oxygen
from the lungs to cells throughout the body.
 Proteins and Diet
Proteins in the diet are necessary for life. Dietary proteins are
broken down into their component amino acids when food is digested.
Cells can then use the components to build new proteins. Humans are
able to synthesize all but eight of the twenty common amino acids.
These eight amino acids, called essential amino acids, must be
consumed in foods. Like dietary carbohydrates and lipids, dietary
proteins can also be broken down to provide cells with energy.
 SUMMARY
Proteins are a class of macromolecules that perform a diverse range of functions for the cell. They help in
metabolism by providing structural support and by acting as enzymes, carriers, or hormones. The building blocks
of proteins (monomers) are amino acids. Each amino acid has a central carbon that is linked to an amino group, a
carboxyl group, a hydrogen atom, and an R group or side chain. There are 20 commonly occurring amino acids,
each of which differs in the R group. Each amino acid is linked to its neighbors by a peptide bond. A long chain of
amino acids is known as a polypeptide.

Proteins are organized at four levels: primary, secondary, tertiary, and (optional) quaternary. The primary structure
is the unique sequence of amino acids. The local folding of the polypeptide to form structures such as the α helix
and β-pleated sheet constitutes the secondary structure. The overall three-dimensional structure is the tertiary
structure. When two or more polypeptides combine to form the complete protein structure, the configuration is
known as the quaternary structure of a protein. Protein shape and function are intricately linked; any change in
shape caused by changes in temperature or pH may lead to protein denaturation and a loss in function.
Nucleic Acid
 Structure of Nucleic Acids
Each nucleotide consists of three smaller
molecules:

1. sugar
2. phosphate group
3. nitrogen base

If you look at Figure, you will see

that the sugar of one nucleotide binds to
the phosphate group of the next
nucleotide. These two molecules
alternate to form the backbone of the
nucleotide chain. This backbone is known
as the sugar-phosphate backbone.
 The nitrogen bases in a nucleic
acid stick out from the backbone. There
are four different types of bases: cytosine
(C), adenine (A), guanine (G), and either
thymine (T) in DNA, or uracil (U) in RNA. In
DNA, bonds form between bases on the
two nucleotide chains and hold the
chains together. Each type of base binds
with just one other type of base: cytosine
always binds with guanine, and adenine
always binds with thymine. These pairs of
bases are called complementary base
pairs.

Nucleic Acid. Sugars and

phosphate groups form the backbone of
a polynucleotide chain. Hydrogen bonds
between complementary bases hold two
polynucleotide chains together.
 The binding of complementary
bases allows DNA molecules to take their
well-known shape, called a double helix,
which is shown in Figure below. A double
helix is like a spiral staircase. The double
helix shape forms naturally and is very
strong, making the two polynucleotide
chains difficult to break apart.

DNA Molecule. Bonds between

complementary bases help form the
double helix of a DNA molecule. The
letters A, T, G, and C stand for the bases
adenine, thymine, guanine, and
cytosine. The sequence of these four
bases in DNA is a code that carries
instructions for making proteins.
 Roles of Nucleic Acids
DNA is also known as the hereditary material or genetic information. It is found in genes, and
its sequence of bases makes up a code. Between "starts" and "stops," the code carries instructions for
the correct sequence of amino acids in a protein (see Figure below). DNA and RNA have different
functions relating to the genetic code and proteins. Like a set of blueprints, DNA contains the
genetic instructions for the correct sequence of amino acids in proteins. RNA uses the information in
DNA to assemble the correct amino acids and help make the protein. The information in DNA is
passed from parent cells to daughter cells whenever cells divide. The information in DNA is also
passed from parents to offspring when organisms reproduce. This is how inherited characteristics are
passed from one generation to the next.

The letters G, U, C, and A stand for the bases in RNA. Each group of three bases makes up
a code word, and each code word represents one amino acid (represented here by a single
letter, such as V, H, or L). A string of code words specifies the sequence of amino acids in a
protein.
Table 1. Features of DNA and RNA
DNA RNA
Function Carries genetic information Involved in protein synthesis

Location Remains in the nucleus Leaves the nucleus

DNA is double-stranded “ladder”:
Structure sugar-phosphate backbone, with base Usually single-stranded
rungs.
Sugar Deoxyribose Ribose

Pyrimidines Cytosine, thymine Cytosine, uracil

Purines Adenine, guanine Adenine, guanine

 ATP

• Adenosine triphosphate, or ATP for short, is the energy currency of life. ATP is a
high-energy molecule found in every cell. Its job is to store and supply the cell
with needed energy.

• Function: ATPs are used as the main energy source for metabolic functions.
They are consumed by energy-requiring (endothermic) processes and
produced by energy-releasing (exothermic) processes in the cell.
 “
◍DNA and RNA are nucleic acids. Nucleic acids are built of small units called
nucleotides.
◍The bases of DNA are adenine, guanine, cytosine and thymine. In RNA, thymine is
replaced by uracil.
◍In DNA, A always binds to T, and G always binds to C.
◍The shape of the DNA molecule is known as a double helix.
◍DNA contains the genetic instructions for the correct sequence of amino acids in
proteins. RNA uses the information in DNA to assemble the correct amino acids and
help make the protein.
 SUMMARY
Nucleic acids are molecules made up of nucleotides that direct cellular activities such as cell division and
protein synthesis. Each nucleotide is made up of a pentose sugar, a nitrogenous base, and a phosphate group. There
are two types of nucleic acids: DNA and RNA. DNA carries the genetic blueprint of the cell and is passed on from
parents to offspring (in the form of chromosomes). It has a double-helical structure with the two strands running
in opposite directions, connected by hydrogen bonds, and complementary to each other.

RNA is single-stranded and is made of a pentose sugar (ribose), a nitrogenous base, and a phosphate
group. RNA is involved in protein synthesis and its regulation. Messenger RNA (mRNA) is copied from the DNA,
is exported from the nucleus to the cytoplasm, and contains information for the construction of proteins.
Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is a part of the ribosmes at the site of protein synthesis, whereas transfer RNA (tRNA)
carries the amino acid to the site of protein synthesis. microRNA regulates the use of mRNA for protein synthesis.
 Vitamins
Vitamins are organic compounds that are required by advanced
animals in small amounts on a regular basis. Like essential amino acids, there
are 13 vitamins that are required but not produced by the human system.
Unlike essential amino acids, these vitamins are required in minute
quantities. If deficient or in excess, certain maladies occur in humans, such as
beriberi, anemia, rickets, and skin lesions. In general, vitamins are coenzymes,
or parts of enzymes, that function to assist a specific enzyme to catalyze
(increase the rate of) a reaction. Some vitamins are fat soluble and others
are water soluble.
 Fat-soluble vitamins

Are probably the most common vitamins for some people. Unlike water-soluble
vitamins, they remain stored in the fat deposits of a body for long periods of time and may
accumulate to overdose levels. Note that the only vitamin humans can make is Vitamin D.
Vitamin D is made when cholesterol is acted upon by enzymes and sunlight. It should also
be noted that the fat-soluble Vitamin K is produced in small quantities in the human
intestine by the action of mutually beneficial intestinal bacteria.
 Water-soluble vitamins

Generally function within the cell to help catalyze cellular reactions such as cellular
respiration. For your reference, cellular respiration is the process of harvesting energy from
the breakdown of food molecules that takes place inside individual cells. Unlike fat-soluble
vitamins, excess water-soluble vitamins do not remain stored in the body, but are excreted
in urine and feces. Water-soluble vitamins include the eight different types of B complex
vitamins and Vitamin C.