AGENDA SETTING THEORY ORIGIN: Maxwell MaxCombs and

Donald Shaw along with G. Ray

Funkhouser prepared a mass media theory
known as Agenda Setting Theory in 1968.
The study was conducted on North Carolina
voters done in 1968 presidential election.
The conclusion was later published as an
article in 1972 in “Public Opinion
Quarterly”, which was later revised in 1976.

McCombs and Shaw, in the research done in

1968 they focused on two elements:
awareness and information.

Investigating the agenda-setting function of the mass media, they attempted to assess the relationship
between what voters in one community said were important issues and the actual content of the media
messages used during the campaign. McCombs and Shaw concluded that the mass media exerted a
significant influence on what voters considered to be the major issues of the campaign.

“This impact of the mass media- the ability to effect cognitive change among individuals, to structure
their thinking- has been labelled the agenda-setting function of mass communication. Here may lay the
most important effect of mass communication, its ability to mentally order and organize our world for
us. In short, the mass media may not be successful in telling us what to think, but they are stunningly
successful in telling us what to think about.” –McCombs and Shaw
 Assumptions of Agenda Setting Theory
o Media distorts reality by filtering and reshaping
o Media concentrating on specific issues make people perceive that the issues are more
important
 Levels of Agenda Setting
o Deciding what common subjects are important by using objects and issues
o Deciding parts of subject which are important and how people should think about it

Bernard Cohen [1963]: “The press may not be successful much of the time in telling people what to think,
but it is stunningly successful in telling its readers what to think about.”

The media may not be particularly successful in telling people ‘what to think’ but they are stunningly
successful in telling people ‘what to think about’. According to them, the impact of the mass media, the
ability to affect cognitive change among individuals, to structure their thinking has been labeled the agenda
setting functions of mass communication.
 Examples of Agenda Setting Theory
 The Clinton scandal, sexual affair of Bill Clinton (U.S. President) and Monica Lewinsky (an intern),
created a media frenzy and became sensational news for years. Media gave full pages news as top stories.
The media influenced the mindset of people so much and the news got viral to result in a presidential
impeachment. And later, Clinton was acquitted for the crime.
 The Watergate scandal was also exposed by media and blown out of proportions. The issue of burglars
breaking in at the Watergate office complex was exaggerated by involving President Richard M. Nixon in
this scandal. Media created different myths like corruption, the post uncovering the story in the beginning
before police, and an increase in enrolment in journalism universities due to the incident.

 Criticisms of Agenda Setting Theory

 Agenda setting of any media or news article is difficult to measure.
 Surveys and studies are very subjective and not very accurate. There are too many variables to consider.
 People have many options to read the same stories from different angles due to new media nowadays. So
people have various choices on what to see or hear.
 Nowadays, media uses two way communication unlike when this theory was developed.
 Agenda setting has many benefits as media influences public and public influences policy.
 People might not look at the details and miss some important points resulting in misunderstanding.
 Media effect does not work for people who have fixed mindset.
 Media is not able to create information but is able to change the priority of the information to the public
mindset.
 USES AND GRATIFICATION
Uses and gratification theory focuses on free will of audience and is deterministic as media can be used in different
ways and for different purposes. This theory assumes that there is nothing as an absolute truth. The audience is said
to have full control over the effect of media on them as the effect can be chosen by the audience themselves. The
theory is closely related to human psychology of needs, motives and influence.

 Audience is taken as important and goal oriented.

 The source of media is chosen by audience as per their own needs.
 This theory gives alternative choices on media for the audience.
 Media is taken as a means to an end.
 Uses and functions of media are different from a person to another and from one situation to other.
 Uses are also decided for groups, communities and societies.
 Both individual and group needs are fulfilled by media.
 When needs are gratified, people get satisfaction.
 People are not taken as helpless victims of media.
 Mobile phones, internet, social networking sites, etc. are new form of communication tool used for uses and
gratification.

OBJECTIVES OF USES AND GRATIFICATION THEORY

 To show the relation of mass communication and how it is used to gratify needs
 To find out primary intentions of media use by people
 To know the positive and negative aspects of media use on the media users.
 CATEGORIES OF USES AND GRATIFICATION
 Affective needs
Affective needs talk about emotional fulfilment and pleasure people get by watching soap operas,
series on television and movies. People relate to the character and feel the emotions the characters
show. If they cry, the audience cry and if they laugh, audience laugh along with them.
 Cognitive needs
People use media to get information and fulfil their mental and intellectual needs. People watch
news mostly to gratify this need. Other examples can be quiz programs, teaching programs, arts and
crafts programs for children, documentaries, how-to videos (DIYs), etc. Online media, Internet, is
also being used to get information to get this need fulfilled.
 Social integrative needs
The need of each person to socialize with people like family and friends is social integrative need.
People use media to socialize and interact through social networking sites like Facebook, My Space,
Twitter, etc. People also use media to increase their social interactions by getting topics to talk with
the near and dear ones. Media also helps by providing people with topics and ideas to talk/discuss
with their friends and near ones, increasing their social interaction skills.
 Personal integrative needs
Personal integrative needs are the needs for self-esteem and respect. People need reassurance to
establish their status, credibility, strength, power, etc. which is done with the use of media. They use
media to watch advertisements and know which products are in fashion and shop accordingly to
change their lifestyle and fit in with other people.
 Tension free needs
People listen to songs and watch TV when they are in stress to relieve their stress or when they are
bored at times. People might have various tensions in life which they do not want to face, so take
help of media to escape from it.
 CRITICISM OF USES AND GRATIFICATION THEORY
 The theory does not show media as important.
 The theory does not believe in the power of media and how media can influence human
needs and gratification unconsciously.
 The model is audience centred and shows audience as an active participant.
 Critics think that the theory does not meet the standards to be called a theory and can
only be taken as an approach to analyze as research relies on recollection of memory.
 The theory ignores the use of media in social structures.
 Audience might not always be active.

EXAMPLES OF USES AND GRATIFICATION THEORY

In situations like watching movies and listening to the music of your own choice, this theory is
applicable. People choose from their own choices and moods. The needs of the particular person
are met through the media used.
Some people might watch news for information, some for entertainment, and some for self-
reassurance. Some watch according to their moods. There are various needs which gets fulfilled
by the media.
Similarly, internet and mobile phones have become a source of media that tries to fulfil not only
the mass communication needs, but also interpersonal needs like interaction and emotional
involvement. People can use internet, text, call, talk with photos or with videos. It is portable and
accessible. It has come to be useful for many and serve many purposes.
 MASLOW'S HIERARCHY OF NEEDS
The Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is a theory proposed by Abraham Harold Maslow in his 1943 paper A Theory of
Human Motivation.
According to Maslow, each person had a different set of needs at different point of time in his life. He said that all
needs of humans could be arranged in a hierarchy. Each person is said to move through the hierarchy by fulfilling
each level of needs. Some people may have dominant needs at a particular level and thus never move through the
entire hierarchy.

Maslow’s hierarchy lists the following five levels of needs:

 Physiological needs: This level of needs deals with the basic
necessities of human survival like food, clothing and shelter. If a
person does not fulfill these needs he will cease to function.
 Safety: Once the first level needs are met, a person feels the need
to have a life of security where safety in all aspects of life is
ensured.
 Social needs: This deals with the innate need to feel as if one
belongs in a chosen social group and in various other relationships
that are a part of human life. There is a need to be accepted or
otherwise people are prone to negative effects like depression &
loneliness.
 Esteem: Deals with the need to feel good about oneself and
getting recognition from others. A lack of these needs will result
in an inferiority complex and helplessness.
https://www.communicationtheory.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/01/maslow-
hierarchy-of-needs-diagram.jpg
 Self-actualization: Becoming the best one can be. Here the need
is to maximize ones potential.

The limitations with this theory lie in the fact that different cultures may cause people to have
different hierarchies of needs. People necessarily may not satisfy one level after another and may
have other needs not mentioned in the list and may be ready to sacrifice some needs.
THE SPIRAL OF SILENCE MODEL Example: During the 1991 Gulf
War the U.S. support for the war
was measured. Either it is a
consensus view or did media
coverage contribute to a spiral of
silence that dampened opposition
to the war? In a survey that asked
about people’s opinions,
respondents were clearly less
supportive of the war than the
popular support depicted by the
media. Those who watched
television and perceived that the
public supported the war, were
more likely tot support the war
themselves.
 History & orientation: Elisabeth Noelle- Neumann, a German media sociologist, [1974] introduced the ‘spiral of
silence’ as an attempt to explain in part how public opinion is formed. She wondered why the Germans supported
wrong political positions that led to national defeat, humiliation and ruin in 1930s -1940s.
 Core assumptions: The phrase ‘spiral of silence’ actually refers to how people tend to remain silent when they feel
that their views are in the minority. The model is based on these premises-
 People have a ‘quasi-statistical organ’, a sixth-sense if you will, which allows them to know the prevailing public
opinion, even without access to polls.
 People have a fear of isolation and know what behaviors will increase their likelihood of being socially isolated.
 People are reticent to express their minority views, primarily out of fear of being isolated.

Spiral of silence suggests that people are swayed by bandwagon effects rather than
fearing social isolation.
 Major Features of
Authoritarian Theory
1) Direct control of the media by government and
authorities
2) Power exercised to control media
3) Control by the powerful ruling minorities or a
group of ruling majorities
4) Media has no power to criticize the government,
its work, decisions and policies
5) Media can not offend the ruling parties in any way
6) Punishment and threats are given to the people
who try to offend the government and the
powerful
7) Licensing of media by the state and giving limited
rights (registration)
8) Cancelation of license if the media does anything
wrong to the government
9) Clear limits on what media can publish
10) Ownership is mostly private
11) Concept of propaganda
12) Control might be on all issues or just some
particular issues
13) Media is used as a weapon or an instrument to
strengthen the power of the government
 ©
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Strengths
 This approach is sometimes better for
resolving social and cultural conflicts.
 It is also better sometimes because it
motivates people to work for the country
and its people.
 This theory can act as a gatekeeper and
prevent the media that act irresponsibly.
 The theory can be used for establishing
propaganda.
Weakness
 Common people are taken as less
intelligent and as an easy target to
manipulate.
 The ruling class uses the media only for
their own benefits.
 The freedom of expression and information
of normal people is attacked.
 AUTHORITARIAN THEORY
Summary

 Authoritarian governments may hold elections and they may

have contact with their citizens, but citizens do not have any
voice in how they are ruled.
 Their leaders do not give their subjects free choice. Instead,
they decide what the people can or cannot have. Citizens,
then, are subjects who must obey, and not participants in
government decisions.
 Kings, military leaders, emperors, a small group of
aristocrats, dictators, and even presidents or prime ministers
may rule authoritarian governments. The leader's title does
not automatically indicate a particular type of government.
LIBERTARIAN THEORY of Mass Communication
1) There is absolute freedom to media, media plays the role of a watchdog.
2) In libertarian theory, there is freedom of thought and expression.
3) There is also freedom of information and individualism.
4) No censorship of any kind is to be done.
5) There is high competition among alternative ideas and thoughts.
6) The government does not own the media and media is a different body in
the functioning of the state.
7) Media is accountable to the law of the country.
8) Media must follow a code of
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©
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Strengths
 Media can give true information without
any control.
 There is no censorship.
 All individuals can express their opinions
and thoughts in the media openly.
 The theory encourages healthy competition
among the thoughts and ideas.
 Every work will be transparent to all.
 It checks the government and the state
authorities and also prevents corruption.
 It functions with democracy.
Weakness
 Media can give true information without
any control.
 There is no censorship.
 All individuals can express their opinions
and thoughts in the media openly.
 The theory encourages healthy competition
among the thoughts and ideas.
 Every work will be transparent to all.
 It checks the government and the state
authorities and also prevents corruption.
 It functions with democracy.
 SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY THEORY
of Mass Communication

1) Private press ownership

2) Helps democracy prosper
3) Media as a democratic
institution
4) Public participation
5) Emphasis on social
responsibility
6) Self-regulation in media
7) Code of ethics © https://www.businesstopia.net/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/Social-Responsibility.jpg

8) Professional standards
9) Media role of criticizing
government
10) Helping eradicate social
problems
11) Pluralistic media (including
ideas and people from
different groups)
12) Social benefit
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 Strengths
 It helps in avoiding conflicts during wars
and conflicts.
 It accepts public opinion and works for the
citizens.
 Press and media houses do not have
monopoly as rules and ethics guide them.
 The media publishes truth due to regulatory
activities and their moral obligation to do
so .
 Yellow journalism decreases as media can
be questioned by the law and public.
 There is pluralism and diversification on
news and people involved.
 The voiceless and marginalized people are
able to raise their voice.
Weakness
 Ethics are always vague, ambiguous and
differs from case to case.
 It is difficult to determine who sets clear
principles and standards.
 Social responsibility and ethics are morally
obligatory things. Any form of legal
limitations should not be imposed if media
is just working in the principle of
responsibility. Laws are authoritative and
not democratic concepts.

ORIGIN: Social Responsibility theory of mass

media is relatively a new concept which started
in the mid-20th century and is used mostly by
developing and least developed countries. The
theory started from Europe and took a shape
with the Commission on the Freedom of
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 TOTALITARIAN THEORY
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3) Media was taken as government
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4) Media was owned by the state
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ORIGIN: The theory came into being along with the concept of communism. George W. F.
Hegel and later, Karl Marx with Engels were the people who thought of the theory in the 19th
century. Mass media in the view of Karl Marx was supposed to be responsible for socialist system
of governance and communist media was supposed to help in implementing social policies.

Criticisms
 Propaganda based information is only delivered. The information might be false.
 No media can criticize the government and the government will not get the chance to improve.
 Authoritative obstruction can be found for every type of media.
 There can be many restrictions and there is a concept of punishment.
 Leader is taken as the greatest and citizens are not given importance.
 The media cannot play the role of the watchdog.
 The development of the nation depends on the characteristics of the leader.
 DEVELOPMENT MEDIA HYPOTHESIS
The main idea behind development communication theory is media for development
of people in a nation or to help the target population. Communication seeks to
serve the people without manipulation and encourage genuine response.

Development used to be taken as bridging the disparity between the so-called

1st world and the 3rd world countries before the 20th century. Development was
believed to be the process which made the third world countries follow the first
world countries/ western countries, which were considered to be fully developed.

The theory focused on passive audience which was not participatory. This gave the
notion that development was being, like the developed countries, one way
influence. After that, the aspect of feedback was added.

Then, communication was said to be horizontal. Today, development communication

is about working for local development and creating opportunities. Its objective is
to uplift the quality of life of people not only economically but also socially,
culturally, politically, etc. by using the tools of development communication.
 DEVELOPMENT MEDIA HYPOTHESIS
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Strengths
 Specified tools for communication
make communication effective.
 Helps in international
development projects.
 Participation in communication
media makes it inclusive.
Weakness
 It enforces westernization more
than modernization.
 Cultural hegemony is occurred
through development
communication implementation.
 DEMOCRATIC-PARTICIPANT MEDIA HYPOTHESIS
Media is said to be important in rural settings and in the cultures that are degrading with
time. The theory is believed to conserve and revive local cultures by promoting
 the right to information (global and local),
 right to express (feedback),
 right to use new technologies (means of communication),
 freedom to local data,
 freedom to take part in social action, etc.

The democratic-participant theory is more relevant in liberal democratic developed

countries than developing and least developed countries because the countries in
transition from underdevelopment and non-democracy are alleged to lack the
infrastructures and professional skills needed for free media in democracy.

It considers there should not be monopolization (public/private), centralization of press

and top down approach in the media. The press should be pluralistic,
decentralized, bottom-up or horizontal and must have equality. The major concept
is participation and full circular communication.
 FEATURES OF DEMOCRATIC-PARTICIPANT
THEORY OF MASS COMMUNICATION:
 Encourages horizontal and bottom up approach in media
 Supports democracy, existing political rule, national socio-economic development
efforts and to implement policies
 Media has supportive rather than critical role
 Government controls some aspects if media does not act as it should by the process
of registration, licensing, censorship, by preparing guidelines for media, monitoring,
etc.
 Self regulation of media is also encouraged
 More applicable to new media
 Development of creativity and innovation in small media
 Replacement of media from big media houses to small media
 Participation and interaction of media and audience (as both are from the same
group of population)
 Different communities, groups and organizations possessing their own media
 Strengths Weakness
 The audience can participate and get alternatives if  Local level media might lack
not satisfied with one media. professionalism and skills.
 The theory is stricter than libertarian and social  The small local media might not be
responsibility which makes it more responsible able to compete with media giants.
towards the needs of the audience.  Criticizing the government is not
 The community can work for themselves as social considered to be productive role of
action. media.
 The theory is not very authoritative unless the press
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people.
Examples
The examples of democratic-participant theory are the present concepts of community newspapers, community
radios and televisions. Other examples are the trend of social action through social media and language programs
through phone apps. Even, underground and alternative press are examples of this theory.

The theory is in use in Western Europe which can be seen by the cultural and ethnic revival through media. Many
countries have started following the theory in mass media such as Yugoslavia, Kosovo, Ghana, Bangladesh, Nepal,
India, US, UK, etc. Community radio is mostly popular in South East Asian countries.
Vanshika Gupta
PGDMC
Semester II

1871411