Leadership

Unit II: Leadership

 Leadership: Meaning and Definition; Difference between
managers and leaders; Leadership styles, traits and skills of
Effective Leaders; Theories of Leadership: Trait Perspective;
Behavioral Perspective; Contingency Perspective;
Transformational versus Transactional Perspective,
Leadership and Emotional Intelligence
Introduction

What is leadership?

What comes to your mind when you see this word?

Introduction (Cont.)
Name some leaders
Who are they? What did they do?
Leadership

The ability to influence people toward the

attainment of organizational goals.
 Leadership
 Social influence process of involving two or
more people
 Leader
 Follower
 Potential follower
 Leadership (cont.)
 Two dimensions
 Leader intends to affect behavior of another person
 Target of influence effort perceives intent as
acceptable
 Target must attribute behavior to a specific person
 Consider the behavior acceptable
Task !!
 Find leaders in different places in
organizations
 Formal organization position
 Personal qualities add or detract from leadership
 Emergent leaders within formal groups in an
organization
 Leaders at various organization level
Manager vs. Leader
 Manager vs. Leader
 Manager
 What Needs to be Done
 Planning and Budgeting
 Arranging People to Accomplish Goals
 Organizing and Staffing
 Ensuring People do Their Jobs
 Controlling and Problem Solving
 Manager vs. Leader
 Leader
 What Needs to be Done
 Setting a Direction
 Arranging People to Accomplish Goals
 Aligning People
 Ensuring People do Their Jobs
 Motivating and Inspiring
Leader and Manager Qualities
 Personal Characteristics of Leaders
Physical characteristics
Energy
Physical stamina
Intelligence and ability
Judgment, cognitive ability
Knowledge
Judgment, decisiveness
Personality Work-related characteristics
Self-confidence Achievement drive, desire to excel
Honesty and integrity Conscientiousness in pursuit of goals
Enthusiasm Persistence against obstacles, tenacity
Desire to lead
Independence
Social background
Social characteristics Education
Sociability, interpersonal skills Mobility
Cooperativeness
Ability to enlist cooperation
Tact, diplomatic
The Evolution of Leadership Research
The Evolution of
Leadership Research (Cont.)
Contingency Theories
(person x situation)

Fiedler’s
contingency House’s
theory path-goal
(enduring theory
Behaviors personality-like (behavior
(task and qualities) repertoire)
people)
Traits

1900 1950 1960 1970

Time
Trait Approaches to Leadership
 Leadership traits: distinctive physical or
psychological characteristics
 Of successful leaders or distinguished leaders
from followers
 Physical: height, weight
 Social: interpersonal skills, status
 Personality: self-confidence, intelligence
Trait Approaches to Leadership
Leadership Traits

Intelligence Drive
Dominance Desire to lead
Self-confidence Honesty/integrity
Energy Self-confidence
Task-relevant Cognitive ability
knowledge Knowledge of the business

“Leaders are bright, self-confident, high-energy people

who know something about the situation they are trying to affect
and take control when they must”
Behavioral Theories of Leadership
1. I have the final say over decisions
made within my group.

A. I let group members make their own decisions

B. Absolutely
C. Most of the time
2. I consider suggestions made by others
in the group.

A. Always
B. Never
C. Sometimes
3. I tell group members what to do, how
to do it, and when I want it done.

A. Rarely
B. All of the time
C. occasionally
4. If a group member makes a mistake,
they are reprimanded or punished.

A. Almost never. Group members can

resolve problems on their own.
B. Absolutely
C. Rarely. Mistakes are a sign that a new
strategy is needed.
5. I carefully watch group members to be
sure they are performing tasks properly.

A. Never. Group members know more about their

job than I do.
B. Always
C. Somewhat. I offer guidance if it is needed.
6. Group members need clear rewards and
punishments in order to complete tasks and
meet goals.

A. Disagree. Group members should establish

their own goals and objectives.
B. Agree.
C. Somewhat agree. They also need to feel
involved and committed to the process.
7. Group members are motivated by a
need for security.

A. Yes
B. No
C. Sometimes
8. I accept input from group members.

A. Absolutely. I allow group members to guide

the decision-making process.
B. Never. I don't have time to worry about other
people's ideas.
C. Yes, but I have the final say over all decisions.
9. I ask for advice from group members
when things go wrong.

A. Yes, and I let group members resolve

problems on their own.
B. No
C. Often. I want input from group members
when resolving problems.
10. I want group members to feel involved
and relevant in the decision-making
process.

A. All of the time

B. Never
C. Much of the time
11. When there are problems in the group, I work
with members to arrive at a reasonable
resolution.

A. Often. Group members should offer

suggestions.
B. Never. I will decide how to fix the problem.
C. Always. Group members should work together
to fix the problem.
12. I want to help group members fulfill
their potential.

A. Absolutely
B. Not really
C. Sometimes
13. I prefer when decisions are made
through group consensus.

A. Sometimes
B. Never
C. Absolutely
14. Big decisions should have the approval of the
majority of the group.

A. Sometimes. Group members should offer input.

B. Never. Group leaders are in charge of making
decisions.
C. Always
15. I let group members decide what needs
to be done and how to do it.

A. Always
B. Never
C. Occasionally
16. I allow group members to carry out their role
with little of my input. They know more
about their job than I do.

A. Agree
B. Disagree
C. Neutral
17. I entrust tasks to other group members.

A. Most of the time

B. Never
C. Often
18. I allow other group members to
share my leadership power.

A. Yes
B. No
C. Somewhat
Add up the number of A’s, B’s and C’s

Mostly A’s= Laissez-faire

Mostly B’s= Authoritarian
Mostly C’s= Democratic
 Leadership Styles
Psychologist Kurt Lewin set out to identify different styles of
leadership
1. Autocratic
Authoritarian leaders make decisions
independently with little or no input from the
rest of the group.

Authoritarian leadership is best applied to

situations where:-
• There is little time for group decision-
making
• Where the leader is the most
knowledgeable member of the group.
 2. Democratic
Democratic leaders offer guidance to group
members, but they also participate in the group
and allow input from other group members.
• Participative leaders encourage group
members to participate, but retain the final
say over the decision-making process.
• Group members feel engaged in the process
and are more motivated and creative.
 3. Laissez-Faire
Laissez-Faire leaders offer little or no guidance to
group members and leave decision-making up to
group members.
• While this style can be effective in situations
where group members are highly qualified in
an area of expertise,
• it often leads to poorly defined roles and a lack
of motivation.
Behavioral Theories of Leadership
 Two complementary theories
 Ohio State University Leadership Studies
 University of Michigan Studies
 Major dimensions of leader behavior
 Task-centered behavior
 People-centered behavior
 The Ohio State Leadership Studies
 A series of studies on leadership was done by Ohio
State University in 1945 to identify observable
behaviors of leaders instead of focusing on their
traits.
 These studies narrowed the description of leader behavior
into two dimensions:

 Initiating Structure Behavior: The behavior of leaders who

define the leader-subordinate role so that everyone knows
what is expected, establish formal lines of communication,
and determine how tasks will be performed.

 Consideration Behavior: The behavior of leaders who are

concerned for subordinates and attempt to establish a warm,
friendly, and supportive climate.
Behavioral Theories of Leadership
 The Ohio State Leadership Studies
 Initiating Structure (task-oriented)
 High
 Make individual task assignments
 Set deadlines
 Clearly lay out what needs to be done
 Act decisively
Behavioral Theories of Leadership
 The Ohio State Leadership Studies
 Initiating Structure (task-oriented)
 Low
 Tend not to take initiative
 Practice "hands off" management
 Leave people alone; let them define the tasks and
deadlines
Behavioral Theories of Leadership
 The Ohio State Leadership Studies (cont.)
 Excessively high Initiating Structure
 High turnover
 High grievance rates
 Low satisfaction
 Moderate initiating structure
 Good task performance when
 People not trained
 Face high task ambiguity
Behavioral Theories of Leadership
 The Ohio State Leadership Studies (cont.)
 Consideration (people-oriented)
 High
 Concern for members of their group
 Empathic and interpersonally warm
 Interested in developing trust-based relationships
with subordinates
 Seek suggestions and opinions of subordinates
 Accept and carry out suggestions
Behavioral Theories
of Leadership
 The Ohio State Leadership Studies (cont.)
 Low
 Publicly criticize subordinate's work
 Lack concern for other's feelings
 Little interest in quality of interpersonal
interactions
 Research results
 High Consideration: high job satisfaction, low
turnover, group cohesiveness
 High on both dimensions: positive work attitudes
Behavioral Theories of Leadership
 The University of Michigan Studies
 Production-centered leader behavior
 Task focused
 Pressured subordinates to perform
 Little concern for people
 Did not trust people to work on their own
 Close supervision
 Little understanding of their work unit's social system
Behavioral Theories of Leadership
 The University of Michigan Studies (cont.)
 Employee-centered leader behavior
 Focused on people and their personal success
 Understood of their work unit's social system
 Set high performance goals
 Communicated performance expectations to
subordinates

Combined a strong concern for the social aspects of the

work unit with high performance expectations
Behavioral Theories of Leadership
 The University of Michigan Studies (cont.)
 Research results
 Employee-centered leadership: higher work unit
performance than production-centered leadership
 Production-centered leadership: high productivity
with several latent dysfunctions
 Poor employee attitudes
 Higher turnover or absenteeism
 Little group loyalty
 High levels of distrust between subordinates and
leaders
Contingency Theories
of Leadership
 Successful leadership depends on leader's
situation
Contingency Theories
of Leadership
 Fiedler’s contingency theory of leadership:
person has a behavioral predisposition
 Task-oriented: structures situations, sets
deadlines, makes task assignments
 Relationship-oriented: focuses on people,
considerate, not strongly directive
Contingency Theories of Leadership
 Fiedler’s contingency (cont.)
 Person’s predisposition to behave interacts with
favorableness of situation
 Determines leader effectiveness
 Dimensions of situations
 Leader-member relations
 Task structure
 Position power
Contingency Theories of
Leadership
 Fiedler’s contingency (cont.)
 Leader-member relations
 Quality of the relationship between subordinates and
leader
 Amount of trust between leader and subordinates
 Leader is liked and respected by subordinates
Contingency Theories of Leadership
 Fiedler’s contingency theory (cont.)
 Task structure
 Extent to which work is well defined and standardized
or ambiguous and vague
 High task structure: work is predictable and can be
planned
 Low task structure: ambiguous situation with
changing circumstances and unpredictable events
Contingency Theories of Leadership
 Fiedler’s contingency theory (cont.)
 Position power: formal authority of leader
 High position power: leader hires people; rewards or
punishes behavior
 Low position power: policies may constrain leader
from using rewards or punishments
Contingency Theories of Leadership
 Fiedler’s contingency theory (cont.)
 Classify situations on the three dimensions
 Favorableness of situation for leader's influence
 Favorable situations allow high leader influence
 Unfavorable situations allow little leader influence
 Task-oriented leaders more effective in highly favorable
or highly unfavorable situations
 Relationship-oriented leaders more effective in situations
between those two extremes
Contingency Theories of Leadership
 Fiedler’s contingency theory (cont.)
 Difficult to select leaders to match situations
 Not optimistic about effectiveness of leadership training
 Fiedler argued for changing the situation to fit a leader's
predispositions--”'engineer' the job to fit the [leader]”
 Or leader learns ways to change situation to fit
predisposition
Contingency Theories of
Leadership
 House’s path-goal theory
 Leader behaviors: a repertoire
 Directive (task-centered): what, when, how
 Supportive (people-centered): concern for people
and the needs they try to satisfy
 Participative: consults with subordinates; seriously
considers their ideas
 Achievement-oriented: emphasizes excellence in
performance; sets high performance goals
Contingency Theories of
Leadership
 House’s path-goal theory (cont.)
 Contingency factors
 Personal factors of subordinates
 Work environment factors
Contingency Theories
of Leadership
 House’s path-goal theory (cont.)
 Subordinates’ personal factors
 Perception of their ability
 Locus of control
 Authoritarianism
Contingency Theories
of Leadership (Cont.)
 House’s path-goal theory (cont.)
 Work environment factors
 Tasks
 Formal authority
 Primary work group
Contingency Theories
of Leadership
 House’s path-goal theory (cont.)
 Behavior repertoire
 Choose behavior based on leader's skills and
personality
 Circumstances facing the leader (contingency factors)
Contingency Theories
of Leadership
 House’s path-goal theory (cont.)
 Subordinates's ability
 Low: likely respond positively to directive leader
behavior
 High: directive leader behavior is redundant; they
already know what to do
Contingency Theories
of Leadership
 House’s path-goal theory (cont.)
 Locus of control
 Internal control (self in control)
 Responds positively to participative behavior
 Less positively to directive behavior
 External control
 Responds positively to low participative behavior
 Responds positively to directive leader behavior
Contingency Theories
of Leadership
 House’s path-goal theory (cont.)
 Authoritarianism
 Low: tend not to defer to authority; prefer
participative behavior
 High: accept directive leader behavior
Contingency Theories
of Leadership
 House’s path-goal theory (cont.)
 Work environment factors: affect degree of
ambiguity
 Routine tasks
 Clearly defined role relationships
 Standard operating procedures
 Less ambiguity than tasks done in a more fluid setting
 Formal authority
 Lets leader clearly define work roles
 Helps set clear goals
Contingency Theories
of Leadership
 House’s path-goal theory (cont.)
 Primary work group
 People strongly identified with each other
 Develop well-defined work procedures
 Creates unambiguous environment
 People not strongly identified with each other
 Do not develop well-defined work procedures
 Creates ambiguous environment
Contingency Theories
of Leadership
 House’s path-goal theory (cont.)
 Low ambiguity
 Directive leader behavior redundant
 Use supportive behavior
 High ambiguity
 Directive leader behavior
 Clarifies work requirements
 Reduces uncertainty
Contingency Theories
of Leadership
 House’s path-goal theory of leadership
 Leaders affect a subordinate's motivation to reach desired
goals
 Rewards when person reaches desired goals
 Supportive while person tries to reach goals
 Makes inherently motivating task assignments
 Clears barriers to goal accomplishment
 Clearing subordinates' paths so they can reach desired
goals
Leader Roles in the Path-Goal Model

SOURCE: Based on Bernard M. Bass,

“Leadership: Good, Better, Best,”
Organizational Dynamics 13 (Winter
1985),26-40
Path-Goal Situations and
Preferred Leader Behaviors
Contingency Theories of Leadership

 Hersey and Blanchard’s Situational Leadership Theory

 Primary focus is on the belief that there is not one “best” style, but a good
choice given a situation.
 “Successful leaders are those who can adapt their behavior to meet the
demands of their own unique situation.”
 Situational Leadership theory is based on the amount of:
a. direction (task)
b. support (relationship)
c. maturity level of group and individuals
 Three Main Components

Situational Leadership theory is based on the amount of:

1. direction (task)

2. support (relationship)

3. maturity level of group and individuals

 Types of Behaviors

Task Behavior
The extent to which a leader engages in one way
communication by explaining what each follower is to do
as well as when, where, and how tasks are to be
accomplished.

Relationship Behavior
The extent to which a leader engages in two way
communication by providing support, active listening, and
facilitative behaviors
 Status of Followers

Maturity/Readiness Level (of followers) =

a. capacity to set high but attainable goals

b. willingness and ability to take responsibility

c. education and/or experience

 Leader’s Process

 Leaders must FIRST assess maturity/readiness of

group and then determine how much task and
relationship behavior to use.

 Maturity/readiness of group should be considered

only in relation to a specific situation to be performed
Alternative Views
of Leadership
 The Leadership Mystique
 Transformational Leadership
 Charismatic Leadership
Alternative Views of Leadership
 The Leadership Mystique
 Sense of mission: a vision of a future state for
the organization. It does not now exist but it will
exist
 Capacity for power: ability to get and use
power to pursue the mission
 Will to survive and persevere

In Jenning’s words:
“. . . a will to persevere against a discourteous,
unbelieving world of sometimes total opposition.”
Alternative Views
of Leadership
 Transformational Leadership
 Three elements
 Charisma: from the Greek, charisma, meaning a
gift. A talent to inspire devotion and allegiance
 Individualized consideration
 Intellectual stimulation
 Alternative Views
of Leadership
 Transformational Leadership (cont.)
 Individualized consideration
 Recognizes subordinates’ individual differences
 Emphasizes continual growth and development
 Knows her or his subordinates well
 Intellectual stimulation
 Builds high awareness of problems and solutions
 Stimulates people to image new future states
 Induces changes in beliefs and values of followers
Alternative Views
of Leadership
 Transformational Leadership (cont.)
 Strive for big increases in performance
 Bring excitement to workplace
 Build strong emotional bonds between self and
subordinates
 Often bring dramatic changes to an organization's culture
 High organizational performance
Alternative Views
of Leadership
 Charismatic Leadership
 Attract devoted followers
 They energetically pursue leader's vision
 Move followers to extraordinary heights of
performance
 Profoundly affect aspirations
 Build emotional attachment to leader
Alternative Views
of Leadership
 Charismatic Leadership Theories
 Win commitment to leader's vision
 Develop and widely communicate an inspirational vision
 Form bonds of trust between themselves and their
followers
 Impatient with the present
 Press for continuous improvement
Perspective Offered by Each Theory
Qualities needed Behavior needed

Traits Behavioral
Leadership
requirements of
an organization

Contingency

Alternative views

Assess person
Vision, charisma, knowledge and situation
Women, Men, and Leadership
 Do women and men exhibit different
leadership behavior?
 Women: nurturing and caring
 Men: competitive and aggressive

Results of their socialization?