1.

Diode rectifiers
2. Dc–dc converters (dc choppers)
3. Dc–ac converters (inverters)
4. Ac–dc converters (controlled rectifiers)
5. Ac–ac converters (ac voltage controllers)
6. Static switches
• Diode rectifier. A diode rectifier circuit converts ac voltage into a fixed
dc voltage. A diode conducts when its anode voltage is higher than
the cathode voltage, and it offers a very small voltage drop, ideally
zero voltage, but typically 0.7 V. A diode behaves as an open circuit
when its cathode voltage is higher than the anode voltage, and it
offers a very high resistance, ideally infinite resistance, but typically
10 kΩ. The output voltage is a pulsating dc, but it is distorted and
contains harmonics. The average output voltage can be calculated
from Vo(AVG) = 2 Vm/π. The input voltage v ito the rectifier could be
either single phase or three phase.
Dc–dc converters. A dc–dc converter is also known as a chopper, or switching regulator, When
transistor Q1 is turned on by applying a gate voltage VGE, the dc supply is connected to the
load and the instantaneous output voltage is vo = +Vs. When transistor Q1 is turned off by
removing the gate voltage VGE, the dc supply is disconnected from the load and the
instantaneous output voltage is vo = 0. The average output voltage becomes Vo(AVG) = t1Vs/T
= δ Vs.
Therefore, the average output voltage can be varied by controlling the duty cycle. The average
output voltage vo is controlled by varying the conduction time t, of transistor Q1. If T is the
chopping period, then t1 = δT. δ is known as the duty cycle of the chopper.
• AC to DC Converters. An AC to DC converter circuit can convert AC
voltage into a DC voltage. The DC output voltage can be controlled
by varying the firing angle of the thyristors. The AC input voltage
could be a single phase or three phase.
• Ac–ac converters. These converters are used to obtain a variable ac
output voltage vo from a fixed ac source
• Static switches. Because the power devices can be operated as static
switches or contactors, the supply to these switches could be either
ac or dc and the switches are known as ac static switches or dc
switches.
• A number of conversion stages are often cascaded to produce the
desired output
• Design of Power Electronics Equipment
• The design of a power electronics equipment can be divided into four
parts:
• 1. Design of power circuits
• 2. Protection of power devices
• 3. Determination of control strategy
• 4. Design of logic and gating circuits
Conversion type and symbol
• Characteristics and Specifications of Switches
• There are many types of power switching devices. Each device,
however, has its advantages and disadvantages and is suitable to
specific applications. The motivation behind the development of any
new device is to achieve the characteristics of a “super device.”
Therefore, the characteristics of any real device can be compared and
evaluated with reference to the ideal characteristics of a super device.
• Ideal Characteristics
The characteristics of an ideal switch are as follows:
1. In the on-state when the switch is on, it must have

(a) the ability to carry a high forward current IF, tending to infinity;
(b) a low on-state forward voltage drop VON, tending to zero; and
(c) a low on-state resistance RON, tending to zero. Low RON causes low on-state power
loss PON. These symbols are normally referred to under dc steady-state conditions.
2. In the off-state when the switch is off, it must have
(a) the ability to withstand a high forward or reverse voltage VBR, tending to infinity;
(b) a low off-state
Characteristics of Practical Devices
• During the turn-on and turn-off process, a practical switching device requires a
finite delay time (td), rise time (tr), storage time (ts), and fall time (tf). As the
device current isw rises during turn-on, the voltage across the device v sw falls.
As the device current falls during turn-off, the voltage across the device rises. The
typical waveforms of device voltages v sw and currents isw are shown in Figure
1.13b. The turn-on time (ton) of a device is the sum of the delay time and the rise
time, whereas the turn-off time (toff) of a device is the sum of the storage time
and the fall time. In contrast to an ideal, lossless switch, a practical switching
device dissipates some energy when conducting and switching. Voltage drop
across a conducting power device is at least on the order of 1 V, but can often be
higher, up to several volts. The goal of any new device is to improve the
limitations imposed by the switching parameters.The average conduction power
loss PON is given by
• where Ts denotes the conduction period and p is the instantaneous
power loss (i.e., product of the voltage drop vsw across the switch
and the conducted current isw).
• The resultant switching power loss PSW during the turn-on and turn-
off periods is given by

• where fs = 1/Ts is the switching frequency; td, tr, ts, and tf are the
delay time, rise time, storage time, and fall time, respectively.
Therefore, the power dissipation of a switching device is given by:
• where to is the off-time during which the switch remains off. The
timing involved in the switching process of a practical switch, as
shown in Figure 1.13b, limits the maximum switching period. For
example, if td = tr = tn = ts = tf = to = 1μs, Ts = 6 μs and the maximum
permission frequency is fS(max) = 1/Ts = 166.67 kHz.
• dv/dt rating: A semiconductor device has an internal junction capacitance
CJ. If the voltage across the switch changes rapidly during turn-on, turn-off,
and also while connecting the main supply, the initial current, the current
CJ dv/dt flowing through CJ may be too high, thereby causing damage to
the device. The dv/dt of the voltage across the device is limited by
connecting an RC circuit across the device, known as a shunt snubber, or
simply snubber.
• Switching losses: During turn-on the forward current rises before the
forward voltage falls, and during turn-off the forward voltage rises before
the current falls. Simultaneous existence of high voltage and current in the
device represents power losses as shown in Figure 1.13. Because of their
repetitiveness, they represent a significant part of the losses, and often
exceed the on-state conduction losses.
• Gate-drive requirements: The gate-drive voltage and current are important
parameters to turn on and off a device. The gate-driver power and the energy
requirement are very important parts of the losses and total equipment cost.
With large and long current pulse requirements for turn-on and turn-off, the
gate-drive losses can be significant in relation to the total losses and the cost of
the driver circuit can be higher than the device itself.
• Safe operating area (SOA): The amount of heat generated in the device is
proportional to the power loss, that is, the voltage–current product. For this
product to be constant P = vi and equal to the maximum allowable value, the
current must be inversely proportional to the voltage. This yields the SOA limit on
the allowable steady-state operating points in the voltage–current coordinates.
I2It for fusing: This parameter is needed for fuse selection. The I2t of the device
must be less than that of the fuse so that the device is protected under fault
current conditions.
• Temperatures: Maximum allowable junction, case and storage
temperatures, usually between 150°C and 200°C for junction and
case, and between −50°C and 175°C for storage.
• Thermal resistance: Junction-to-case thermal resistance, QIC; case-to-
sink thermal resistance, QCS; and sink-ambient thermal resistance,
QSA. Power dissipation must be rapidly removed from the internal
wafer through the package and ultimately to the cooling medium. The
size of semiconductor power switches is small, not exceeding 150
mm, and the thermal capacity of a bare device is too low to safely
remove the heat generated by internal losses. Power devices are
generally mounted on heat sinks. Thus, removing heat represents a
high cost of equipment.
Historical
• 1st thyristor SCR developed in 1957
• Since 1970, various type of power electronic devices were developed
and become commercially available.
Power Semiconductor Devices
• These devices can be divided broadly into three types: (1) power diodes,
(2) transistors, and (3) thyristors
• These can further be divided broadly into five types: (1) power diodes, (2)
thyristors, (3) power bipolar junction transistors (BJTs), (4) power metal
oxide semiconductor field-effect transistors (MOSFETs), and (5) insulated-
gate bipolar transistors (IGBTs) and static induction transistors (SITs).
• The earlier devices were made of silicon materials and the new devices are
made of silicon carbide. The diodes are made of only one pn-junction,
whereas transistors have two pn-junctions and thyristors have three pn-
junctions. As the technology grows and power electronics finds more
applications, new power devices with higher temperature capability and
low losses are still being developed
 Power semiconductor Devices
Classification
• Classification by materials (carrier type)
• The two-terminal devices (diodes), whose state is completely
dependent on the external power circuit they are connected to;
• The three-terminal devices, whose state is not only dependent on
their external power circuit, but also on the signal on their driving
terminal (gate or base). Transistors and thyristors belong to that
category.
• A second classification is less obvious, but has a strong influence
on device performance: Some devices are majority carrier
devices (Schottky diode, MOSFET), while the others are minority
carrier devices (Thyristor, bipolar transistor, IGBT).
• The former use only one type of charge carriers, while the latter
use both (i.e electrons and holes). The majority carrier devices
are faster, but the charge injection of minority carrier devices
allows for better On-state performance
 Common power devices
• Some common power devices are the power diode, thyristor, power
MOSFET and IGBT. A power diode or MOSFET operates on similar principles
to its low-power counterpart, but is able to carry a larger amount of current
and typically is able to support a larger reverse-bias voltage in the off-state.

Structural changes are often made in power devices to

accommodate the higher current density, higher power
dissipation and higher reverse breakdown voltage.
The vast majority of the discrete (non integrated)
power devices are built using a vertical structure,
whereas small-signal devices employ a lateral
structure. With the vertical structure, the current rating
of the device is proportional to its area, and the
voltage blocking capability is achieved in the height of
the die. With this structure, one of the connections of
the device is located on the bottom of the
SCR / Thyristor module,
semiconductor die
6500V, 1,500A for 50us
pulse
 Power semiconductor Devices
Classification
Classification by control method

CONTROL SIGNAL

UNIPOLAR BIPOLAR

VOLTAGE CURRENT
(controlled) (controlled)
 Power semiconductor Devices
Classification
Classification by operation (direction of current flow)

CURRENT FLOW

UNIDIRECTIONAL BIDIRECTIONAL

UNIPOLAR BIPOLAR BIPOLAR

RECTIFIERS TRANSISTORS RECTIFIERS TRANSISTORS THYRISTORS THYRISTORS

SCHOTTKY MOSFET SCR GTO ASCR GATT

BJT DARLINGTON TRIAC RCT

HYBRID

IGBT MOS-SCR
Root-Mean-Square Values of Waveforms
• To accurately determine the conduction losses in a device and the
current ratings of the device and components, the rms values of the
current waveforms must be known.
• The rms value of a waveform i(t) can be calculated as
• If a waveform can be broken up into harmonics whose rms values can
be calculated individually, the rms values of the actual waveform can
be approximated satisfactorily by combining the rms values of the
harmonics.