PAULA CAMILLE D.

AQUINO
JEFFREY L. MADRONIO
 RADIATION

Wilhelm Roentgen- discovered X-rays toward the end of the year

1895.
Henri Becquerel- observed radiation similar to X-rays emanating
from certain uranium salts.
Marie and Pierre Curie- studied radiation from two uranium ores,
pitchblende and chalcolite, and isolated two additional elements
(radium and polonium) that exhibited radiation similar to that of
uranium but considerably stronger. The discovery and isolation of
these radioactive elements mark the beginning of the “atomic age.”
THREE TYPES OF RADIATION
(According to the direction of deflection in a magnetic field)
1. alpha (α) -Alpha rays have the least penetrating power, move at a
slower velocity than the other types, and are deflected slightly by a
magnetic field in a direction that indicates a positive charge.
2. beta (β) -Beta rays are more penetrating than alpha rays, move at a
very high speed, and are deflected considerably by a magnetic field in a
direction that indicates a negative charge.
3. gamma (γ) -Gamma rays have very great penetrating power and are not
affected at all by a magnetic field. They move at the speed of light and
have a very short wavelength (or high frequency)

Becquerel’s observation correlated gamma radiation with Roentgen’s X-

rays. In 1905, Ernest Rutherford identified alpha particles emanating from
uranium as ionized helium atoms, and in 1932, Sir James Chadwick
characterized as neutrons the highly penetrating radiation that results when
beryllium is bombarded with alpha particles.
RADIOACTIVE DECAY

An atom that is radioactive has an unstable nucleus. The

nucleus moves to a more stable condition by emitting an alpha or
beta particle or neutron; this emission is frequently accompanied
by emission of additional energy in the form of gamma radiation.
As a result of these emissions, the radioactive atom is
transformed into either an isotope of the same element (neutron
or gamma only emission) or into an isotope of a different
element (alpha or beta emission).This transformation is known as
radioactive decay, and the emissions are known as ionizing
radiation.
The rate of radioactive decay, or rate of decrease of the
number of radioactive nuclei, can be expressed by a
first-order rate equation
• That is, one-half of the radioactive atoms have decayed (or
disintegrated) during each time period t1/2. This time period t1/2 is
called the radiological half-life, or sometimes simply the half-life.
• N never becomes zero in any finite time period; for every half-life
that passes, the number of atoms is halved. If the decay constant
Kb is known, the half-life may be determined from
ALPHA, BETA, AND GAMMA RADIATION

Emissions from radioactive nuclei are called, collectively, ionizing

radiation because collision between these emissions and an
atom or molecule ionizes that atom or molecule. Ionizing
radiation may be characterized further as alpha, beta, or gamma
radiation by its behavior in a magnetic field.
• Alpha radiation has been identified as helium nuclei that have been
stripped of their planetary electrons, and each consists of two
protons and two neutrons. α particles thus have a mass of about 4
amu (6.642 x 10^-4 g) each, and a positive charge of 2.
• Beta radiation is a stream of electrons emitted at a velocity
approaching the speed of light, with kinetic energy between 0.2 and
3.2 MeV. Given their lower mass of approximately 5.5 x 10^-4 amu
(9.130 x 10^-24 g), interactions between β particles and the atoms of
pass-through materials are much less frequent than a particle
interactions fewer than 200 ion pairs are typically formed in each
centimeter of passage through air.
• Gamma radiation is invisible electromagnetic radiation, composed
of photons, much like medical X-rays. γ photons are electrically
neutral and collide randomly with the atoms of the material as they
pass through. The considerably longer distance that γ rays travel in
all media is defined by the relaxation length, the distance that the y
photon travels before its energy is decreased by a factor of l/e.
When ionizing radiation is emitted from a nucleus, the
nature of that nucleus changes: another element is formed
and there is a change in nuclear mass as well. This process
may be written as a nuclear reaction, in which both mass
and charge must balance for reactants and products.
For example, the beta decay of C-14 may be written

That is, C-14 decays to ordinary stable nitrogen (N-14) with

emission of a beta particle. The mass balance for this
equation is
14 = O+ 14,
and the charge balance is
6= -1+7
UNITS FOR MEASURING IONIZING RADIATION
The International System of Units (SI units) for measuring
ionizing radiation, based on the meter-kilogram-second (mks)
system, was defined by the General Conference on Weights and
Measures in 1960, and adoption of these units has been
recommended by the International Atomic Energy Agency.

• becquerel (Bq) is the SI measure of source strength or total

radioactivity, and is defined as one disintegration per second;
the units of becquerels are second^-1 . The decay rate dN/dt is
measured in becquerels.
• curie (Ci) is the radioactivity of 1 g of the element radium, and
is equal to 3.7 x 10^10 Bq.^3
• gray (Gy) is the SI measure of the quantity of ionizing
radiation that results in absorption of one joule of energy per
kilogram of absorbing material. One gray is the equivalent of
100 rad, the historical unit of “radiation absorbed dose” equal
to 100 ergs/g of absorbing material. The gray is a unit of
absorbed radiation dose.

• sievert (Sv) is the SI measure of absorbed radiation dose

equivalent. That is,1 Sv of absorbed ionizing radiation does the
same amount of biological damage to living tissue as 1 Gy of
absorbed X-ray or y radiation.
• The dose equivalent is the product of the absorbed dose in
grays and a quality factor (QF) (sometimes called the relative
biological efectiveness, or RBE). The historical dose
equivalent unit is the rem, for “roentgen equivalent man.”
One sievert is equivalent to 100 rem. These units are related
as follows:
QF = Sv/Gy = rem/rad.
Table 16-3 gives sample QFs for the internal dose
from radionuclides incorporated into human tissue.
Dose equivalents are often expressed in terms of population
dose equivalent, which is measured in person-Sv. The
population dose equivalent is the product of the number of
people affected and the average dose equivalent in sieverts.\

The dose equivalent is product of the absorbed dose and the QF.
• The effective dose equivalent (EDE) is the risk-weighted sum of
the dose equivalents to the individually irradiated tissues or
organs.
• The committed effectiue dose equivalent (CEDE) is the total
effective dose equivalent to the individual over a 50-year period.
MEASURING IONIZING RADIATION

FOUR METHODS WIDELY USED TO MEASURE RADIATION

DOSE, DOSE RATE, AND THE QUANTITY OF RADIOACTIVE
MATERIAL PRESENT
particle counter
 the ionization chamber
photographic film
 the thermoluminescent detector
Particle counters are designed to detect the
movement of single particles through a defined
volume.
Ionization chambers consist of a pair of charged
electrodes that collect ions formed within their
respective electric fields.
Photographic film darkens on exposure to ionizing
radiation and is an indicator of the presence of
radioactivity.
Thermoluminescent detectors (TLD) are crystals,
such as NaI, that can be excited to high electronic
energy levels by ionizing radiation.
HEALTH EFFECTS

The energy transferred through these collisions and

interactions per unit path length through the tissue is
called linear energy transfer (LET) of the radiation. The
more ionization observed along the particle’s path, the
more intense the biological damage. LET can serve as a
qualitative index for ranking ionizing radiation with
respect to biological effect.
Biological effects of ionizing radiation may be
grouped as somatic and genetic.
Somatic effects are impacts on individuals who are directly
exposed to the radiation.
Example of an acute somatic effects:
Radiation sickness (circulatory system breakdown, nausea, hair
loss, and sometimes death)
Chronic effects resulting from long-term exposure to low
doses of ionizing radiation may include both somatic and
genetic effects that may occur because ionizing radiation
damages the genetic material of the cell.
 Health risk from ionizing radiation may be summarized as
follows: there is a documented risk from ionizing radiation, but it
is apparently small, clearly uncertain, and depends on a number
of factors. These include:
• the magnitude of the absorbed dose,
• the type of ionizing radiation,
• penetrating power of the radiation,
• the sensitivity of the receiving cells and organs,
• the rate at which the dose is delivered,
• the proportion of the target organ or organism exposed, and
• the possibility of a threshold below which there is no discernible
damage.
SOURCES OF RADIOACTIVE WASTE
Until 1980, there was no classification of radioactive wastes. The U.S. Nuclear
Regulatory Commission (NRC) has classified radioactive wastes and other
materials into the following categories:
• High-level waste (HLW). HLW includes spent nuclear fuel from
commercial nuclear reactors and the solid and liquid waste from
reprocessing spent or irradiated fuel. The NRC reserves the right to
classify additional materials as HLW as necessary.
• Uranium mining and mill tailings. The pulverized rock and leachate
from uranium mining and milling operations.
• Transuranic waste (TRU). Radioactive waste that is not HLW but
contains more than 3700 Bq (100 nCi) per gram of elements heavier
than uranium (the elements with atomic number higher than 92).
Most TRU waste in the United States is the product of defense
reprocessing and plutonium production.
• By-product material. Any radioactive material, except fissile
nuclides, produced as waste during plutonium production or
fabrication.
• Low-level waste (LLW). LLW includes everything not included in one
of the other categories. LLW is not necessarily less radioactive than
HLW and may have higher specific activity in becquerels per gram.
The distinguishing feature of LLW is that it contains virtually no
alpha emitters. To ensure appropriate disposal, the NRC has
designated several classes of LLW:
 Class A contains only short-lived radionuclides or extremely low
concentrations of longer-lived radionuclides, and must be chemically
stable. Class A waste may be disposed of in designated LLW landfills as
long as it is not mixed with hazardous or flammable waste.
 Class B contains higher levels of radioactivity and must be physically
stabilized before transportation or disposal. It must not contain free
liquid.
 Class C is waste that will not decay to acceptable levels in 100 years
and must be isolated for 300 years or more. Power plant LLW is in
this category.
 Greater than Class C (GTCC) will not decay to acceptable levels in
300 years. A small fraction of power plant Class C waste is in this
category. Some nations like Sweden treat GTCC waste like HLW, and
the United States may do the same.
 Mixed Low-Level Waste (MLLW) is UW that contains hazardous
waste as defined under the Resource Conservation and Recovery
Act (RCRA).
 Formerly used sites Remedial Action Program (FUSRAP) waste is
contaminated soil from radium and World War 11 uranium refining
and atomic bomb development.