Diplomacy

is the art and practice of

conducting negotiations
between
representatives of
groups or nations.
 It usually refers to international
diplomacy, the conduct of
international relations through the
intercession of professional diplomats
with regard to issues of peace-
making, culture, economics, trade and
war. International treaties are usually
negotiated by diplomats prior to
endorsement by national politicians.
 The name comes from the
Greek language, and roughly
means "(having) double eyes"
(suggesting that a negotiator's
main attribute should be the
ability to undestand the
interests of all participants).
Diplomats and diplomatic
missions
A diplomat is someone
involved in diplomacy; the
collective term for a group of
diplomats from a single
country is a diplomatic
mission.
 An ambassador is the most
senior diplomatic rank; a
diplomatic mission headed by
an ambassador is known as
an embassy. The collective
body of all diplomats resident
in a particular country is
called a diplomatic corps
Diplomacy and espionage
 Diplomacy is closely linked to
espionage. Embassies are bases for
both diplomats and spies, and some
diplomats are essentially openly-
acknowledged spies. For instance,
the job of military attachés includes
learning as much as possible about
the military of the nation to which they
are assigned. They do not try to hide
this role and, as such, are only invited
to events allowed by their hosts, such
as military parades or air shows.
 There are also deep-cover spies operating
in many embassies. These individuals are
given fake positions at the embassy, but
their main task is to illegally gather
intelligence, usually by coordinating spy
rings of locals or other spies. For the most
part, spies operating out of embassies
gather little intelligence themselves and
their identities tend to be known by the
opposition. If discovered, these diplomats
can be expelled from an embassy, but for
the most part counter-intelligence agencies
prefer to keep these agents in situ and
under close monitoring
 The information gathered by spies
plays an increasingly important role
in diplomacy. Arms-control treaties
would be impossible without the
power of reconnaissance satellites
and agents to monitor compliance.
Information gleaned from espionage
is useful in almost all forms of
diplomacy, everything from trade
agreements to border disputes.
 Diplomatic recognition
 Diplomatic recognition is an important
factor in determining whether a nation is an
independent state. Receiving recognition is
often difficult, even for countries which are
fully sovereign. For many decades after
becoming independent, even many of the
closest allies of the Kingdom of the
Netherlands refused to grant it full
recognition. Today there are a number of
independent entities without widespread
diplomatic recognition, most notably the
Republic of China on Taiwan.
 Since the 1970's, most nations have stopped
officially recognizing the ROC's existence on
Taiwan, at the insistence of the People's Republic
of China. Currently, the United States and other
nations maintain informal relations through de facto
embassies, with names such as the American
Institute in Taiwan. Similarly, Taiwan's de facto
embassies abroad are known by names such as
the Taipei Economic and Cultural Representative
Office. This was not always the case, with the US
maintaining official diplomatic ties with Taiwan until
1979, when these relations were broken off as a
condition for establishing official relations with
China.
 Informal diplomacy
 Informal diplomacy (sometimes called Track II
diplomacy) has been used for centuries to
communicate between powers. Most diplomats work
to recruit figures in other nations who might be able
to give informal access to a county's leadership. In
some situations, such as between the United States
and the People's Republic of China, a large amount
of diplomacy is done through semi-formal channels
using interlocutors such as academic members of
thinktanks. This occurs in situations where
governments wish to express intentions or to
suggest methods of resolving a diplomatic situation,
but do not wish to express a formal position.
 Track II diplomacy is a specific kind of
informal diplomacy, in which non-officials
(academic scholars, retired civil and military
officials, public figures, social activists)
engage in dialogue, with the aim of conflict
resolution, or confidence-building.
Sometimes governments may fund such
Track II exchanges. Sometimes the
exchanges may have no connection at all
with governments, or may even act in
defiance of governments; such exchanges
are called Track III.
 Diplomatic law is that area of
international law that governs
permanent diplomatic missions . A
fundamental concept of diplomatic
law is that of diplomatic immunity,
which derives from state immunity.
 An important treaty with regards to
diplomatic law is the 1961 Vienna
Convention on Diplomatic
Relations.
Diplomatic rank
 The system of diplomatic rank has over time
been formalised on an international basis.
Traditional diplomacy
 Until the early 19th Century, each European
nation had its own system of diplomatic rank.
The relative ranks of diplomats from different
nations had been a source of considerable
dispute, made more so by the insistence of
major nations to have their diplomats ranked
higher than those of minor nations, to be
reflected in such things as table seatings.
 In an attempt to resolve the problem, the
Congress of Vienna of 1815 formally established
an international system of diplomatic ranks. The
four ranks within the system were:
 1. Ambassador Extraordinary and
Plenipotentiary, or simply Ambassador, who is a
representative of the head of state. Equivalent,
and in some traditions primus inter pares, is the
Papal nuncio. Amongst Commonwealth countries,
the equivalent title High Commissioner (who
represents the government rather than the head
of state) is normally used instead.
 A diplomatic mission headed by an
ambassador would be known as an
Embassy; one headed by a High
Commissioner is called a High Commission.
An ambassador and a high commissioner
are entitled to use the title "His/Her
Excellency" from the government and the
people of the country they are appointed to.
If an ambassador or high commissioner that
are from Canada are not addressed by
Canadians as Excellency, but are called
ambassador or high commissioner.
 2. Minister Plenipotentiary (in full Envoy
Extraordinary and Minister
Plenipotentiary), or simply Envoy. Usually
just referred to as a Minister, an envoy is a
diplomatic representative with
plenipotentiary powers (i.e. full authority to
represent the head of state), but ranking
below an Ambassador. Where Embassies
are headed by Ambassadors, Legation]s
are headed by Ministers.
 3. Minister Resident or Resident Minister, or
simply Minister, is the, now extremely rare, lowest
rank of full diplomatic mission chief, only above
Chargé d'affaires (who is considered an
extraordinary substitute).
 Note that both the Minister Plenipotentiary and the
Minister Resident are diplomatic ministers, which
are not the same thing as government ministers or
religious ministers. A diplomatic mission headed
by either type of Minister would be called a
Legation. As they formally represent the head of
state, they are entitled to use the title "His/Her
Excellency", which originally was reserved for
Ambassadors.
 4. Chargé d'affaires ad interim, or simply
Chargé. As the French title suggests, a
chargé d'affaires would be in charge of an
embassy's or a legation's affairs in the
(usually temporary) absence of a more
senior diplomat.
 As it turned out, this system of diplomatic rank did
nothing to solve the problem of the nations'
precedence. The appropriate diplomatic ranks
used would be determined by the precedence
among the nations; thus the exchanges of
ambassadors (the highest diplomatic rank) would
be reserved among major nations, or close allies
and related monarchies. In contrast, a major nation
would probably send just an envoy to a minor
nation, who in return would send an envoy to the
major nation. As a result, the United States did not
use the rank of ambassador until their emergence
as a major world power at the end of the 19th
Century. Indeed, until the mid-20th Century, the
majority of diplomats in the world were of the rank
of envoy.
 In diplomatic parlance, all the diplomats that are assigned to
a nation are known collectively as the diplomatic corps; one
of these diplomats is recognized as the primus inter pares - in
practice rather a protocolar honor - who acts as the
spokesperson for all, known as the dean of the diplomatic
corps (generally based on the date of arrival in country or
presentation of credentials to the head of state, although in
some Catholic nations it is held automatically by the Papal
Nuncio).
 After World War II, most legations were upgraded to
embassies, and the use of the rank of Minister for diplomatic
missions' highest-ranking officials gradually ceased. The last
U.S. Legation, in Sofia, Bulgaria, was upgraded to an
Embassy on November 28, 1966. Where those ranks still
exist, their incumbents usually act as embassy section chiefs
or Deputy Chief of Mission (deputy to the Ambassador
 Modern diplomats
 [edit]
 Bilateral diplomacy
 In modern diplomatic practice there are a number of diplomatic ranks
below Ambassador. Since most missions are now headed by an
Ambassador, these ranks now rarely indicate a mission's (or its host
nation's) relative importance, but rather reflect the diplomat's individual
seniority within their own nation's diplomatic career path and in the
diplomatic corps in the host nation:
 Ambassador
 Minister
 Minister-Counselor
 Counselor
 First Secretary
 Second Secretary
 Third Secretary
 Attaché
 Assistant Attaché
 In the United States Foreign Service, a system of personal ranks is
applied which roughly corresponds to these diplomatic ranks. Personal
ranks are differentiated as "Senior Foreign Service" (SFS) or "Foreign
Service Officer" (FSO). The SFS ranks, in descending order, are
Career Ambassador, awarded to career diplomats with extensive and
distinguished service; Career Minister, the highest regular senior rank;
Minister-Counselor; and Counselor. In U.S. terms, these correspond to
4-, 3-, 2- and 1-star General and Flag officers in the military,
respectively. Officers at these ranks may serve as Ambassadors and
the most senior positions in diplomatic missions. FSO ranks descend
from FS-1, equivalent to a full Colonel in the military, to FS-9, the
lowest rank in the U.S. Foreign Service personnel system. (Most FSOs
begin at the FS-5 or FS-6 level.) Personal rank is distinct from and
should not be confused with the diplomatic or consular rank assigned
at the time of appointment to a particular diplomatic or consular
mission. In a large mission, several Senior Foreign Service Officers
may serve under the Ambassador as Minister-Counselors, Counselors,
First Secretaries, and Attaches; in a small mission, an FS-2 may serve
as the lone Minister-Counselor of Embassy.
 Multilateral diplomacy
 Furthermore, outside this traditional pattern of bilateral diplomacy, as a
rule on a permanent residency basis (though sometimes doubling
elsewhere), certain ranks and positions were created specifically for
multilateral diplomacy:
 A permanent representative is the equivalent of an ambassador,
normally of that rank, but accredited to an international body (mainly by
member - and possibly observer states), not to a head of state.
 A resident representative (or sometimes simply representative) is the
equivalent - in rank and privileges - of an ambassador, but accredited
by an international organization (generally a United Nations Agency, or
a Bretton Woods Institution) to a country's government. The resident
representative typically heads the country office of that international
organization within that country.
 A special ambassador is a government's specialist diplomat in a
particular field, not posted in residence, but often traveling around the
globe.
 The U.S. Trade Representative is a diplomat of cabinet rank, in charge
of U.S. delegations in multilateral trade negotiations (since 1962).
 The UN Secretary General personally mandates Special Envoys for a
particular field, e.g. Africa's long-term AIDS-problem, or ad hoc as for a
(civil) war zone; states, especially (regional) superpowers, may do the
same, e.g.:
– To help with the Northern Ireland peace process, the United States has
appointed a Special Envoy to Northern Ireland with the diplomatic rank of
Ambassador. As of 2006, the position was occupied by Mitchell Reiss.
– During the 2006 democracy movement in Nepal, India sent Karan Singh,
who is related to royalty in both predominantly Hindu countries, as Special
Envoy to neighbouring Nepal.
– In 2005, Belgium created a former cabinet member, Pierre Chevalier
Special Envoy of the OSCE presidency - in fact ahead of its 2006 turn as
rotatory Chairman-in-Office of the organisation - to mediate in the Gazprom
natural gas-pipeline crisis involving Russia, Ukraine and the EU.
 The EU appoints various Special Representatives (some regional,
some thematic); e.g. in 2005 - as a response to events in Kyrgyzstan
and Uzbekistan - the Council of the EU appointed Jan Kubis as its
"Special Representative for Central Asia".
 A case sui generis is the High Representative for Bosnia and
Herzegovina
Consular counterpart
 Formally the consular career (ranking in descending order:
Consul-General, Consul, Vice-Consul, Consular Agent;
equivalents without any type of immunity include Honorary
Consul General, Honorary Consul, and Honorary Vice
Consul) forms a different hierarchy. (Other titles, including
"Vice Consul-General", have existed in the past.) Consular
titles may be used concurrently with diplomatic titles if the
individual is assigned to the embassy. At a separate
consular post, the official will have only a consular title.
 Consular officers render a wide range of services to private
citizens, enterprises, et cetera. They can be more
numerous since diplomatic missions are posted only in a
nation's capital, while consular officials are stationed in
various other cities as well. However, it is not uncommon
for individuals to be transferred from one hierarchy to the
other, and for consular officials to serve in a capital
carrying out strictly consular duties
 Basic setting and overview
 The board is a map of Europe showing political boundaries as they existed at the beginning of the
20th century, divided into fifty-six land regions and nineteen sea regions.
 Each player other than Russia begins the game with three units (armies and fleets); Russia has
four units (two armies and two fleets) to compensate for its larger area and number of neighbours.
 Only one unit at a time may occupy a given map region. Thirty-four of the land regions contain
supply centers, corresponding to major centers of industry or commerce (e.g., "London," "Rome,").
The number of supply centers a player controls determines the total number of armies and fleets a
player may have on the board, and as players gain and lose control of different centers, they may
build and remove units accordingly. At the beginning of the game, there are twelve "neutral"
(unoccupied) supply centers; these are all typically captured within the first few moves, allowing all
the powers to ramp up their military strength. Thereafter the game becomes zero sum, with any
gains in a player's strength coming at the expense of a rival.
 Players who control no supply centers are eliminated from the game, and victory is achieved if a
player controls eighteen of the thirty-four supply centers.
 For the most part, the regions on the board are named after the general regions (e.g. "Bohemia") or
countries (e.g. "Finland"); however, home supply centers (i.e. supply centers that are occupied at
the beginning of the game) are named after the relevant cities (e.g. "Rome," "Vienna"). The
exception is that of "Tunis," which despite not being a home supply center is still named after a city.
If the convention was correctly followed, it would be labelled "Tunisia", and indeed is on some
variant maps. The original style is nonetheless an accurate recreation of early 20th century
European diplomatic language, as "Tunis" was then inclusive of both the city and its adjacent
hinterland.
 The standard board also errs in referring to the United Kingdom as England. This too, however, is
in accord with the prevailing diplomatic practices of the early 20th century. The European diplomats
of the time often used "England" interchangeably with "Great Britain," "Britain," or "the United
Kingdom."
 Further, Albania only existed as an independent entity from 1912 (during the First Balkan War)
onwards. In 1901 (the traditional first year of the game), the country was still part of the Ottoman
Empire - referred to as Turkey.
 Game play
 Diplomacy is turn-based - movement turns,
alternately designated "Spring" and "Fall"
moves, by convention begin in the year
1901. Prior to each movement phase,
there is a negotiation period in which
players entice, wheedle, bluff, cajole, and
threaten each other in an attempt to form
favorable partnerships. Secret negotiations
and secret agreements are explicitly
allowed, but no agreements of any kind are
enforceable.
 After the negotiation period is over, players secretly write
orders for each unit and these orders are revealed
simultaneously and simultaneously executed. Choice of
orders include "move" (to any space adjacent to the unit's
current location), "support" (assist the move of a different
unit moving into a space adjacent to the unit's current
location), or "hold" (do nothing). Armies may only occupy
land regions, and fleets may only occupy sea regions and
land regions which border the sea. Fleets and armies in
combination can execute the move "convoy," which allows
transport of an army across either one (or multiple) bodies
of water to a distant land square. One Fleet per sea space
traversed is required if multiple bodies of water are to be
traversed.
 Since only one unit can occupy any particular
game space, conflicts (such as two armies
ordered to enter the same space), are resolved
according to rules determining how much
"support" a unit has for its movement. When two
units attempt to occupy the same region, the one
with more support wins. The greatest
concentration of force is always victorious; if the
forces are equal a standoff results and the units
remain in their original positions. If a supporting
unit is attacked (except by the unit against which
the support is directed), the support is nullified,
which allows units to affect the outcome of
conflicts in regions not directly adjacent.
 Occasionally these conceptually simple rules
result in situations which are
 difficult to adjudicate, or even paradoxical.
Therefore the official rules contain comprehensive
details and examples. Also, one person may be
designated as Game Master to execute moves
and adjudicate disputes.
 After each Fall move, occupied supply centers
become owned by the occupying player, and each
power's supply center total is recalculated. At that
point players with fewer supply centers than units
on the board must disband units, while players
with more supply centers than units on the board
are entitled to build units. Units may only be built
in that player's "Home" centers, that is, those
centers with which each Great Power begins the
game. Therefore, a player may not build units in
any captured "neutral" center or in another player's
"Home" centers.
 The boundaries on the Diplomacy map are those
 The Great Powers
 Britain: A powerful sea nation with two fleets to start with, Britain can easily commit
itself to a war with either Russia, France or Germany. Its isolation means that it cannot
expect reprisals immediately, but needs to be careful not to take on more than it can
properly handle.
 Germany: Sandwiched between Russia, Austria-Hungary and France, Germany is a
difficult nation to play. It must therefore often commit to alliances, like for example with
Austria-Hungary; this is good for both parties because it means they both have one
fewer enemy.
 France: A very promising nation with Iberia to the west, France can often find itself in
an alliance with England or Germany or face an alliance from the two.
 Italy: Considered by many Diplomacy players to be the most difficult nation on the
board, Italy is faced with a very troubling situation. France to the west and Austria-
Hungary to the east mean that after Tunisia, Italy must attack another nation to grow.
 Austria-Hungary: Another very difficult nation to play, Austria-Hungary has more
neighbors than any other player (except Russia) and with only one fleet-building home
supply center, often finds itself forced to be a land power. They often get drawn into a
conflict in the Balkans (home of four neutral supply centers) and then find themselves
with no friends.
 Russia: A very exciting nation to play, Russia is larger than any other nation and
although they have four neighbors, they begin the game with an extra unit. Because of
the large land area and several fronts, the possibilities for Russia are endless, leaving
a good Diplomacy player with several options.
 Turkey: Much like England, the Turks find themselves in a corner of the board and
have few options in the beginning. Like England, they are likely safe from a home
invasion, but in order to invade, Turkish armies and fleets must travel far from home.
 Strategy
 Because numerical superiority is crucial to success, alliances are vital in Diplomacy. Each country is initially
roughly equal in strength, so it is very difficult to gain territory except by attacking with the support of a neighbor.
The excitement of the game is less in the tactics than in negotiation, coalition-building, and intrigue. Each player's
social and interpersonal skills are at least as important to the game as the player's strategic abilities.
 Diplomacy commands a respect among aficionados of multiplayer games similar to the respect accorded to chess
among two-player games. Most multiplayer games can't help but involve coalition-building to some degree, but
only in Diplomacy is the negotiation so critical and so multi-faceted. The game can't be won by going it alone,
except in a last mad dash of aggression from a strong position. In the mean time one makes compromises and
promises to one's allies while spreading fear and misinformation among one's enemies. And the attacking of one's
allies (or the "stab") has a central role in the culture of Diplomacy. A stab can be crucial to victory, but may have
negative repercussions in interpersonal relations.
 All of the countries on the map have a real chance for success if played properly. Each power requires a different
style of play. Italy and Austria-Hungary are often thought to be the weakest countries—Austria-Hungary because it
has many neighbors and can be eliminated early, Italy because it has a hard time expanding. However, if they
survive and prosper through the starting phase of the game, their central position can be a great advantage.
England and Turkey are generally considered to be the easiest to defend. Under Calhamer scoring (where an
outright victory is worth one point and participants in a draw split the point equally) Russia and France typically
score the most points, Italy and Austria-Hungary the fewest.
 There is a natural buffer of spaces without supply centers between the western and eastern halves of the board.
Therefore the first few turns of a game usually break down into fighting amongst the western powers (England,
France, Germany) and eastern powers (Russia, Austria-Hungary, Turkey) for dominance in their areas followed by
a break out based on the results. Italy is a wild card with a relatively weak position, though if it commits to an
alliance in either of the two threesomes, the alliance can be pivotal.
 In some circles cheating is not only allowed, but also actively encouraged. Players are allowed and expected to
move pieces between turns, add extra armies (the so-called "Flying Dutchmen"), listen in to private conversations,
change other players' written move orders and just about anything else they can get away with. In tournament
play, however, these forms of cheating are generally prohibited, leaving only the lying and backstabbing which is
prevalent wherever Diplomacy is played.
 A diplomatic mission is a group of people from
one state or an international inter-governmental
organization (such as the United Nations)
present in another state to represent the sending
state/organization in the receiving state. In
practice, a diplomatic mission usually denotes
the permanent mission, namely the office of a
country's diplomatic representatives in the
capital city of another country.
 Naming
 A permanent diplomatic mission is usually
known as an embassy, and the head of
the mission is known as an ambassador.
Missions between Commonwealth
countries are known as High
Commissions and their heads are High
Commissioners. All missions to the United
Nations are known simply as Permanent
Missions, and the head of such a mission
is typically both a Permanent
Representative and an ambassador.
 Some countries have more particular naming for their missions and staff: a Vatican
mission (the oldest continuous diplomacy in the world) is headed by a Nuncio and
consequently known as an Apostolic Nunciature, while Libya's missions were for a
long time known as People's Bureaus and the head of the mission was a Secretary.
(Libya has since switched back to standard nomenclature.)
 In the past a diplomatic mission headed by a lower ranking official (an envoy or
minister resident) was known as a legation. Since the ranks of envoy and minister
resident are effectively obsolete, the designation of legation is no longer used today.
(See diplomatic rank.)
 In cases of dispute, it is not uncommon for a country to recall its head of mission as a
sign of its displeasure. This is less drastic than cutting diplomatic relations completely,
and the mission will still continue operating more or less normally, but it will now be
headed by a chargé d'affaires who may have limited powers. Note that for the period
of succession between two heads of missions, a chargé d'affaires ad interim may be
appointed as caretaker; this does not imply any hostility to the host country.
 A Consulate is similar to (but not the same as) a diplomatic office, but with focus on
dealing with individual persons and businesses, as defined by the Vienna Convention
on Consular Relations. A Consulate is generally a representative of the Embassy in
locales outside of the capital city. For instance, The British Embassy to the United
States is in Washington, D.C., and there are British Consulates in Los Angeles, New
York City, Houston, and so on.
 The term "embassy" is often used to refer to the building or compound housing an
ambassador's offices and staff. Technically, "embassy" refers to the diplomatic
delegation itself, while the office building in which they work is known as a chancery,
but this distinction is rarely used in practice. Ambassadors reside in ambassadorial
residences, which enjoy the same rights as missions.
 Gunboat diplomacy
 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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 In international politics, gunboat diplomacy refers to the pursuit of foreign policy objectives with the aid of
conspicuous displays of military power—implying or constituting a direct threat of warfare, should terms not be
agreeable to the superior force.
 Contents
 [hide]
 1 Origin of the term
 2 Modern contexts
 3 Examples
– 3.1 19th century
 4 External links
 [edit]
 Origin of the term
 The term comes from the age of warring European empires, where such displays typically involved demonstrations
of naval might—gunboats were a prominent type of warship and symbolized an advanced military. A country
negotiating with a European power—usually over issues of trade—would notice that a warship or fleet of ships had
appeared off its coast. The mere sight of such power almost always had a considerable effect, and it was rarely
necessary for such boats to use other measures, such as demonstrations of cannon fire.
 A notable and controversial example of gunboat diplomacy was the Don Pacifico Incident in 1850, in which the
British Foreign Secretary Lord Palmerston dispatched a squadron of the Royal Navy to blockade the Greek port of
Piraeus in retaliation for the harming of a British subject, David Pacifico, in Athens, and the subsequent failure of
the government of King Otto to remunerate the Gibraltar-born (and therefore British) Pacifico.
 The effectiveness of such simple demonstrations of an imperial nation's projection of force capabilities meant that
those nations with naval power, especially Britain, could establish military bases (for example, Diego Garcia) and
arrange economically advantageous relationships around the world. Aside from military conquest, gunboat
diplomacy was the dominant way to establish new trade partners, colonial outposts and expansion of empire.
 Those lacking the resources and technological advancements of European empires found that their own peaceable
relationships were readily dismantled in the face of such pressures, and they therefore came to depend on the
imperial nations for access to raw materials and overseas markets. For up-and-coming industrial nations in the later
19th century, such as Germany and Japan, the rules of the game were
 Modern contexts
 Gunboat diplomacy is considered a form of hegemony. As the
United States became a military power in the first decade of the 20th
century, the Rooseveltian version of gunboat diplomacy, big stick
diplomacy, was partially superseded by dollar diplomacy: replacing
the big stick with the "juicy carrot" of American private investment.
However, during Woodrow Wilson's presidency, conventional
gunboat diplomacy did occur, most notably in the case of the U. S.
Army's occupation of Veracruz during Mexico's civil war.
 Gunboat diplomacy in the post-Cold War world was still based on
naval forces. U. S. administrations have frequently changed the
disposition of their major naval fleets to influence opinion in foreign
capitals. More urgent diplomatic points were made by the Clinton
administration in the Balkans (in alliance with the United Kingdom's
Blair government) and elsewhere, using sea-launched Tomahawk
missiles. The term "gunboat diplomacy" has been superseded in
many circles by "power projection".
 Protocol (diplomacy)
 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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– For other uses, see Protocol.
 In international politics, protocol is the etiquette of diplomacy and
affairs of state.
 A protocol is a rule which guides how an activity should be performed,
especially in the field of diplomacy. In the diplomatic and government
fields of endeavor protocols are often unwritten guidelines. Protocols
specify the proper and generally-accepted behavior in matters of state
and diplomacy, such as showing appropriate respect to a head of state,
ranking diplomats in chronological order of their accreditation at court,
and so on.
 Public diplomacy
 From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
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 In international relations, the term public diplomacy is a term coined in the 1960s to describe
aspects of international diplomacy other than the interactions between national governments. It
has been closely associated with the United States Information Agency, which used the term to
define its mission. It was originally a euphemism for purportedly truthful propaganda.
 Standard diplomacy might be described as the ways in which government leaders communicate
with each other at the highest levels, the elite diplomacy we are all familiar with. Public
diplomacy, by contrast - according to the definition at the USC Center on Public Diplomacy -
focuses on the ways in which a country (or multi-lateral organization such as the United Nations)
communicates with citizens in other societies. A country may be acting deliberately or
inadvertently, and through both official and private individuals and institutions. Effective public
diplomacy starts from the premise that dialogue, rather than a sales pitch, is often central to
achieving the goals of foreign policy: public diplomacy must be seen as a two-way street.
 Film, television, music, sports, video games and other social/cultural activities are seen by public
diplomacy advocates as enormously important avenues for otherwise diverse citizens to
understand each other and integral to the international cultural understanding, which they state is
a key goal of modern public diplomacy strategy. It involves not only shaping the message(s) that
a country wishes to present abroad, but also analyzing and understanding the ways that the
message is interpreted by diverse societies and developing the tools of listening and
conversation as well as the tools of persuasion.
 One of the most successful initiatives which embodies the principles of effective public diplomacy
is the creation by international treaty in the 1950s of the European Coal and Steel Community
which later became the European Union. Its original purpose after World War II was to tie the
economies of Europe together so much that war would be impossible. Supporters of European
integration see it as having achieved both this goal and the extra benefit of catalysing greater
international understanding as European countries did more business together and the ties
among member states' citizens increased. Opponents of European integration are leery of a loss
of national sovereignty and greater centralization of power.
 Shuttle diplomacy
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 In diplomacy and international relations, shuttle diplomacy is the
use of a third party to serve as an intermediary or mediator between
two parties who do not talk directly. The third party travels frequently
back and forth (that is, "shuttles") between the two primary parties.
Shuttle diplomacy is often used when the two primary parties do not
formally recognize each other but still want to negotiate.
 The term shuttle diplomacy became widespread following Henry
Kissinger's term as United States Secretary of State. Kissinger
participated in shuttle diplomacy in the Middle East and in the
People's Republic of China.
 This politics-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by
expanding it.
 Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shuttle_diplomacy
 Track II diplomacy
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 Track II diplomacy is a specific kind of informal diplomacy, in which non-officials
(academic scholars, retired civil and military officials, public figures, and social
activists) engage in dialogue, with the aim of conflict resolution, or confidence-
building.[1] This sort of diplomacy is especially useful after events which can be
interpreted in a number of different ways, both parties recognize this fact, and neither
side wants to escalate or involve third parties for fear of the situation spiraling out of
control. For example, a Chinese general recently commented that atomic bombs are
not out of the question if the PRC and the United States should engage in low-level
conflict over the Taiwan question. If the US immediately responded with heavy press
coverage and speeches by major officials, the PRC would then be forced to take
either of two stances: (1) admission that the general was incorrect, which would
inflame the Chinese population and cause grassroots ire and anti-American feeling, or
(2) claim that the general was correct, which would be deterimental to world peace
and diplomatic relations. Instead, the US would engage in Track II diplomacy to try to
understand whether the initial threat was as serious as it seemed to be. Dialogue
would be deliberately invited in order to determine the stance of the PRC without
creating a confrontational atmosphere.
 Although Track II diplomacy may seem less important than Track I (the work of actual
diplomats at their embassies), it is many times far more important. Indeed its informal
nature often reflects the fact that the issues in question are of deadly seriousness. In
the above situation, the United States would at least ask that the other side clearly
demonstrate their understanding that they were the ones to make the initial threat,
even if no apology was eventually deemed necessary by either side.
 [edit]
 External link