Dairy Technology BTechIV-Unit 9-1-Market Milk

MILK PROCESSING
Heat treatment of fluid milk

 The purposes of heat treatment are:
1. Warranting the safety of consumer
o Specifically concerns killing of pathogens like Mycobacterium
tuberculosis and Coxiella burnetii
o Also concerns killing of other potentially pathogenic bacteria that
may enter the milk
2. Increasing keeping quality

o Primarily concerns killing spoilage organisms and their spores (if
present).
o Inactivation of enzymes, native to milk or excreted by
microorganisms, is also essential.
o Chemical deterioration by autoxidation can be limited by intense
heat treatment.
o Rapid creaming can be avoided by inactivating agglutinin
MILK PROCESSING > Heat treatment of fluid milk
3. Establishing specific product properties

 Examples:
o Heating of milk before evaporation increases coagulation stability
during sterilization
o Inactivating bacterial inhibitors such as immunoglobulins and
lactoperoxidase-CNS-H2O2 system enhances growth of starter
cultures
o Consistency of yogurt is improved
o Coagulation of serum proteins together with casein during
acidification of milk
The main categories of heat treatment of fluid milk
Process Temperature, ˚C Time
Thermization 63-65 15 s
LTLT pasteurization 63 30 min
HTST pasteurization 72-75 15-20 s
Ultrapasteurization 125-138 2-4 s
UHT process 135-140 A few seconds (e.g., 3 s)

Pasteurization
 Pasteurization is the heating of milk and liquid milk products to destroy all
pathogens (using index as Coexiella burnetii) while at the same time
reducing other microorganisms to safe level so that keeping quality of the
product can be prolonged with minimum of chemical, physical and
organoleptic changes.
 For milk, the minimum pasteurization conditions are those having
bactericidal effects equivalent to heating every particle of the milk to 72°C
for 15 s (continuous flow pasteurization) or 63°C for 30 min (batch
pasteurization).
Type of pasteurization
1. Low Temperature Long Time (LTLT): 63˚C for 30 min (batch
process, also called “holder method”)
2. High Temperature Short Time (HTST): 72˚C for 15 s
(continuous flow method)
3. Ultrapasteurization: 125-138˚C for 2-4 s (continuous flow
method)
MILK PROCESSING > Heat treatment of fluid milk > Pasteurization process
30 min
15 s
63 72
Temperature (oC)
Time-temperature regime for pasteurization

MILK PROCESSING > Heat treatment of fluid milk > Pasteurization process
Other methods of pasteurization

 Vacuum pasteurization Vacreation)
o This refers to pasteurization of milk/cream under reduced
pressure by direct steam. It is designed to remove feed and
other volatile flavors from cream, and to pasteurize it for butter
making.
o The vacreator consists of three stainless steel chambers
connected to one another for steam heating and vacuum
treatment with continuous product flow
 Stassanization
o This method of pasteurization is carried out in tubular heat
exchanger consisting of three concentric tubes. The milk is
heated by passing it between two water-heated pipes through
the narrow space of 0.6-0.8 mm. The milk is heated to 74˚C
for 7 s and then promptly cooled as usual
Production of standard pasteurized milk

Receiving milk
(Grading, Sampling, Weighing, Testing) Homogenization*
(2,500 psi)
Chilling in PHE
(4oC or less) Balance tank
Filtration Flow diversion

Cooling and storage Pasteurization
(5oC or below) (63 C/30 min or 72oC/15 s)
o
Regeneration-I Regeneration-II
(40oC) (reverse)
Regeneration-I
Bactofugation* (reverse)
Regeneration-II
Chilling in PHE
Cream separation Skim milk
(5oC)
Packaging
Cream Standardization Storage

o
(5 C or below)
Basic steps of standard pasteurized milk production *Not obligatory
MILK PROCESSING > Heat treatment of fluid milk > Standard pasteurized milk
Process detail
1. Reception: Already discussed
2. Preheating and its purpose
a) Cold milk is warmed to 35-40˚C before subsequent processing
b) It is usually done in plate heat exchanger
c) Reduces viscosity of milk (improves flow properties) so that
filtration/clarification becomes easier
3. Filtration/Clarification
a) Done to remove foreign matter
b) Filtration removes suspended foreign particles by the straining
process.
c) Filtration is carried out in plate-and-frame filter with filter
cloth or pad of desired pore size. Filter cloth must be changed
frequently (based on level of impurity, volume of operation, etc.)
Process detail > Filtration/Clarification …

About clarifier
a) Clarification is done in centrifugal machines that are almost
similar to cream separator machines
b) The modern centrifugal clarification machines are called
bactofuge
c) Today, bactofuges are mainly used as a complement to
pasteurization or thermization on cheese milk with the main
objective to remove heat-resistant spore-forming bacteria
(Clostridium, Bacillus, etc.) that cause late-blowing in cheese.
d) The efficiency of the process is independent of temperature but
since it is normally done before cream separators, the milk is
warmed in a plate heat exchanger to a temperature of 40-
60˚C before subsequent processing
Process detail > Filtration/Clarification > About clarifier….

f) Warming is supposed to reduce viscosity of milk (improves flow
properties) so that filtration/clarification becomes easier
g) There are two types of bactofuges
1) One-phase bactofuge: has only one outlet at the top for the
bacteria-reduced milk. The bacteria-concentrate
(bactofugate) is collected in the sludge space of the bowl
and discharged at pre-set intervals
2) Two-phase bactofuge: has two outlets at the top: one for
continuous discharge of bactofugate via a special top disc,
and one for the bacteria-reduced phase
h) The milk is introduced into the separation channels at the outer
edge of the disc stack, flows radially inwards through the
channels towards the axis of rotation and leaves through the
outlet at the top
Process detail > Filtration/Clarification > About clarifier….

i) Microbial cells and spores, being heavier than milk, are forced
towards the bowl periphery. Over 95% reduction in bacterial load is
possible
Process detail
4. Cream separation
a) In a centrifugal separator, the disc is equipped with vertically-
aligned distribution holes, through which milk is introduced at a
certain distance from the edge of the disc stack
b) Under the influence of centrifugal force, the fat globules in the
milk begin to move inwards (because of lower density) towards
the axis of rotation and then to an axial outlet.
c) The high-density skim milk moves outward towards the
periphery of the disc stack and from there through a channel
between the top of the disc stack and the conical hood of the
separator bowl to a concentric skim milk outlet
d) The nominal capacity of a commercial centrifuge is 20,000
lit/hr with a speed of at least 5000 rpm
e) The centrifugal acceleration created is 3000-6000 times
gravity
Process detail
4. Cream separation ….. 0.09
f) Cream separation is most 0.06

efficient at 40-60˚C because
of decrease in milk viscosity 0.07
and also decrease in fat
density. 0.06
g) The figure shows no 0.05

improvement in cream
separation by increasing 0.04
temperature beyond 60˚C
0.03
10 20 30 40 50 60
Skimming temp. (oC)
Relation of temperature and

skim milk fat %
Process detail > Cream separation

The centrifuge consists of up to 120 discs

stacked together at 45-60 and separated
by 0.4-2.0 mm gap


Sedimentation and floatation velocity of fat globule
This is given by Stoke’s law

Where:
d 2   p  1 
d = particle diameter, m
vg  g        (1) p = density of particle, kg/m3
18 1 = density of continuous phase, kg/m3
 = viscosity of continuous phase, kg/m.s
Equation for sedimentation velocity
g = acceleration due to gravity, 9.81 m/s2
by gravity vg = sedimentation velocity of particle
(due to gravity), m/s
d 2   p  1  vc = sedimentation velocity of particle
vc  r 2      (2) (due to centrifugal force), m/s
18 r = radial position of particle, m
Equation for sedimentation velocity  = angular velocity = 2n/60, rad/s (n = rpm)
r2 = centrifugal acceleration
by centrifugal force

Sample calculation
Where:
d = 3 m = 310-6 m
d 2   p  1  p = 980 kg/m3
vg  g  106 m / s
18 1 = 1028 kg/m3
 = 1.42 cP = 1.42 10-3 kg/m.s
Equation for sedimentation velocity g = 9.81 m/s2
by gravity r = 0.2 m
n = 5,400 rpm
d 2   p  1   = angular velocity = 2n/60 = 564.49 rad/s
vc  r 2  1.08 103 m / s ----------------------------------------
18 vg = 10-6 m/s
Equation for sedimentation velocity vc = 1.08 10-3 m/s
-----------------------------------------
by centrifugal force
The velocity of separation is increased
by ~ 1000 times by centrifugation

 The equations show that fat globule radius and angular velocity have the
greatest influence on separation
 In reality, fat globule separation is achieved faster than that predicted by
Stoke’s law because of the fat globules aggregate and coalesce during
separation to give fat particle of increased radius.
Skimming efficiency and skimming ability
 The amount of fat that can be separated from milk depends on:
1. Design of the separator
2. Rate at which the milk flows through it
3. Size distribution of the fat globules

Skimming efficiency and skimming ability….
 The smallest fat globules, normally < 1 μm, do not have time to rise at the
specified flow rate but are carried out of the separator with the skim milk.
 The fat content in the skim milk normally lies between 0.04 and 0.07 %,
and the skimming ability of the machine is then said to be 0.04 – 0.07.
 Separation efficiency, also termed skimming efficiency refers to the % total
fat from whole milk recovered in the cream. The higher the fat % in milk
and greater the fat loss in skim milk, the lower the skimming efficiency and
vice versa.
 Skimming efficiency is given by:
Amount fat in cream

S.E. = ×100%
Amount of fat in whole milk

Skimming efficiency and skimming ability….
 The yield of cream is given by

f -f Where:
C =M m s M = Weight of milk, kg
fc -fs C = Weight of cream, kg
fm = fat % of milk
 The yield of skim milk is given by: fs = fat % of skim milk
fc -fm fc = fat % of cream
S=M
fc -fs
 The flow velocity through the separation channels will be reduced if the
flow rate through the machine is reduced.
 Reduced velocity gives the fat globules more time to rise and be discharged
through the cream outlet. The skimming efficiency of a separator
consequently increases with reduced throughput and vice versa.

Fat content of cream
 The whole milk supplied to the separator is discharged as two flows, skim
milk and cream, of which cream normally represents about 10% of the total
throughput
 The proportion discharged as cream determines the fat content of the
cream
 If the whole milk contains 4% fat and the throughput is 20,000 lit/h, the
total amount of fat passing through the separator will then be:
4 × 20, 000
= 800 lit / hr
100
 Assuming that cream with fat content of 40% is required. This amount of
fat must be diluted with a certain amount of skim milk. The total amount of
liquid discharged as 40% cream will then be:
800 × 100
= 2, 000 lit / hr
40

Fat content of cream
 In the previous slide, 800 lit/h is pure fat, and the remaining 1,200 lit/h is
skim milk
 Installation of throttling valve in the cream and skim milk outlets makes it
possible to adjust the relative volumes of the two flows to obtain the
required fat content in the cream (35-85% fat)
Solids ejection
 The solids that collect in the sediment space of the separator bowl consist
of straw and hairs, udder cells, leucocytes, bacteria, etc.
 The total amount of sediment in milk varies but may be 1 kg/1000 lit.

Difference between clarifier and cream separator
Clarifier Separator
o Discs are thicker o Discs are thinner
o No distribution holes o Distribution holes present
(channels)
o Discs have smaller radius o Discs have larger radius
o One-phase or two-phase o Two outlets (for cream and
outlets skim milk)
o No separation of cream o Separation of cream
o Greater gaps between discs o Smaller gaps between discs
o Greater throughput o Smaller throughput
o Larger space for sludge o Smaller space for sludge
accumulation accumulation
Process detail > Homogenization

 Homogenization refers to the process of forcing milk through a
homogenizer with the object of subdividing fat globules so that creaming is
prevented
 According to US Public Health Service,
Homogenized milk is milk which has been treated in such a manner
as to insure break up of the fat globules to such an extent that
after 48 hrs’ quiescent storage no visible cream separation occurs
on the milk; the fat percent of the milk in the top 100 ml of milk
in a quart bottle or of proportionate volumes in containers of other
sizes, does not differ by more than 10% of itself from the fat
percentage of the remaining milk as determined after thorough
mixing.
 Due to disruption of fat globules, the milk fat-plasma interface is thereby

considerably enlarged, usually by factor of 5-10. The new interface is
covered with milk protein, predominantly micellar casein

 Homogenization is not carried out for normal market milk. It is used for the
preparation of special milk, homogenized market milk.
Objectives of homogenization
o Counteracting creaming: Smaller fat globules delay creaming
o Improving stability towards partial coalescence: This is due to
reduced fat globule diameter and the acquired surface layer of the
fat globules
o Creating desired rheological properties: Homogenization increases
viscosity because the fat globules with partly covered casein
participate in the aggregation of casein micelles
o Recombining milk products: At one stage of the recombined milk
production, butter oil must be emulsified with reconstituted skim
milk. The mixture, pre-emulsified, is homogenized to break the
coarse emulsion
Process detail > Homogenization….

 Homogenizer is a machine which causes the sub-division of fat globules. It
consists of a high pressure piston pump which forces the milk at high
pressure (and velocity) through a narrow opening between the
homogenizing valve and its seat; the fat globules in the milk are thereby
sub-divided into smaller particles of more uniform size.
Homogenized
globule: 0.1-3 µm
Temp. rise Globule deformation
Passage time:
Valve v = 100-250 m/s
less than 1 ms
Unhomogenized
globule: 1-10 µm
valve clearance = 300 µm v = 0.3-3.5 m/s
Schematics of section of simple homogenizer

adjustable valve
homogenized
produt out
Second-
stage valve
Unhomogenized
product in
first-stage
valve adjustable valve
Schematic diagram of two-stage homogenizer


 Products of high fat content are more difficult to homogenize and also
cause fat clumping, because the concentration of serum proteins is low in
relation to the fat content.
 Usually, cream with higher fat content than 20 % cannot be homogenized
at high pressure, because clusters are formed as a result of lack of
membrane material (casein)
 Homogenization temperature normally applied are 55-70C, and in HTST
process, this is achieved in regeneration section of Plate Heat Exchanger
(PHE)
 Homogenization can be done before or after pasteurization but there is
risk of post-pasteurization contamination if homogenization is done after
pasteurization. Homogenization before pasteurization is therefore the
standard practice.


Single-stage and two-stage homogenization
 Homogenizers may be equipped with one homogenizing device or two
connected in series, hence the name single-stage homogenization and two-
stage homogenization
 Single-stage homogenization may be used for homogenization of products
with high fat content demanding a high viscosity. The first-stage pressure is
of the order of 2000 psi
 Second-stage homogenization may be used primarily to reach optimal
homogenization results and to break up fat clusters in products with high
fat content. The second stage homogenization pressure is about 500 psi
 Ideally, the ratio of homogenization pressures in a two-stage homogenizer,
second-stage : first-stage is kept around 0.2

Single-stage and two-stage homogenization

Theory of homogenization
 There are several theories of homogenization, viz:
1. Shearing
2. Exploding
3. Splashing/Shattering
4. Acceleration and deceleration
5. Turbulent eddies
6. Cavitation
 However, only two theories (5) and (6) have survived. Other theories are
hard to justify. They have also been shown to run against classical theories
5. Turbulent eddies:
 The energy dissipating in the liquid generates turbulent eddies or
“microwhirls”. Higher velocities give smaller eddies. If an eddy hits an oil
droplet of its own size, the droplet will break up. The intense energy of
turbulence and the local pressure differences would tear apart the
droplets, reducing their average size.

Theory of homogenization …..
6. Cavitation:
 The initial homogenization pressure decreases sharply when the liquid is
leaving the homogenizer gap.
 This leads to formation of vapor bubbles due to cavitation.
 Cavitation generates shock waves, which could be in excess of 1600 kg/cm2
in intensity.
 Due to overlapping of these shock waves, steam bubbles implode disrupt
the fat droplets. However, it is possible to homogenize without cavitation,
but it is less efficient.

Theory of homogenization …..
Picture

Effects of homogenization
 Homogenization has physical as well as nutritional effects on milk.
 Experts are of the view that homogenized milk is more digestible, better
absorbed, and better protein utilization
 The physical effects can be discussed under advantages and disadvantages
Advantages
1. Reduction in fat globule size: implies less cream-line
2. Improved stability towards partial coalescence
3. Increased viscosity: implies better stability of cultured milk pdts
4. Whiter and more appetizing color
5. Stability against rancidity
6. More full-bodied flavor, and better mouthfeel
7. Loss of ability to agglutinate: cold agglutination property is lost

Effects of homogenization ……
Disadvantages
1. Somewhat increased sensitivity to light –sunlight and
fluorescent tubes- can result in “sunlight flavor”
2. The milk is less suitable for production of semi-hard or hard
cheeses because the coagulum will be too soft and difficult to
dewater
3. Sensitivity to lipase attack
4. Difficult to salvage fat from returned milk
5. Low thermal stability of protein (curdling in cookery)
6. Greater tendency for milk “seepage” through bottle cap (due to
increased foaming tendency)

Milk temperature and homogenization …
 During homogenization, because of pressure, friction, etc., the temperature
of milk rises. For every 40 bar (4 MPa) drop in pressure between
homogenization and outlet pressure, the temperature of the milk will rise
by 1C, given by:
P -P
T (C) = in out
40
 Example:
Tin = 65C
Pin = 200 bar (20 MPa)
Pout = 4 bar (0.4 MPa)
Pin -Pout (200 -4)
T (C) = = = 4.9C
40 40
 Tout = ΔT + Tin = 4.9+ 65 = 69.9°C

Factors affecting homogenization
There are many factors that affect homogenization, such as:
 Type of homogenizer: the valve design is important
 Homogenizing pressure: affects the size and volume distribution
of fat globules
Process detail > Homogenization > factors affecting ….

o Temperature of homogenization: The milk should be at a
temperature above melting point of milk fat at the time of
homogenization. This is because fat should be in liquid state for
proper sub-division. This can be achieved by heating milk at 55-
70C.
o Fat content of milk: Products of high fat content are more
difficult to homogenize and also cause fat clumping, because the
concentration of serum proteins is low in relation to the fat
content. In such a case, a two-stage homogenizer must be used
to break the clumps. A single-stage homogenizer is satisfactory
only when the fat content is less than 6%.
o Proper operation of homogenizer: Pressure fluctuations (caused
by leakages of valves, etc.), inclusion of air, etc., results in
unsatisfactory homogenization.

Homogenization index
o Homogenization must always be sufficiently efficient to prevent
creaming.
o The result can be checked by determining homogenization index,
which can be found in the manner described in the following
example:
o A sample of milk is stored in a graduated measuring glass
for 48 hr at a temperature of 4-6˚C. The top layer (1/10
of the volume) is siphoned off, the remaining volume (9/10)
is thoroughly mixed, and the fat content of each fraction is
then determined
o The difference in fat content between the top and bottom
layers, expressed as percentage of the top layer, is referred
to as the homogenization index.

Homogenization index …
Example
If the fat content is 3.5% in the top layer and 2.9% in the bottom
layer, the homogenization index will be:
Homogenization index =
3.15 -2.9 ×100
3.15
= 7.9
The index of homogenization should be in the range of 1 to 10.

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MILK PROCESSING

Heat treatment of fluid milk

2. Increasing keeping quality

3. Establishing specific product properties

The main categories of heat treatment of fluid milk

Process Temperature, ˚C Time

LTLT pasteurization 63 30 min

HTST pasteurization 72-75 15-20 s

Ultrapasteurization 125-138 2-4 s

UHT process 135-140 A few seconds (e.g., 3 s)

Time-temperature regime for pasteurization

Other methods of pasteurization

Production of standard pasteurized milk

Filtration Flow diversion

Cream Standardization Storage

Process detail > Filtration/Clarification …

Process detail > Filtration/Clarification > About clarifier….

Process detail > Filtration/Clarification > About clarifier….

f) Cream separation is most 0.06

g) The figure shows no 0.05

Relation of temperature and

Process detail > Cream separation

Process detail > Cream separation

The centrifuge consists of up to 120 discs

Process detail > Cream separation

Process detail > Cream separation

This is given by Stoke’s law

Process detail > Cream separation

Process detail > Cream separation

Process detail > Cream separation

Amount fat in cream

Process detail > Cream separation

 The yield of cream is given by

Process detail > Cream separation

Process detail > Cream separation

Process detail > Cream separation

Process detail > Homogenization

 Due to disruption of fat globules, the milk fat-plasma interface is thereby

Process detail > Homogenization

Process detail > Homogenization….

Temp. rise Globule deformation

valve clearance = 300 µm v = 0.3-3.5 m/s

Schematics of section of simple homogenizer

Process detail > Homogenization

Schematic diagram of two-stage homogenizer

Process detail > Homogenization

Process detail > Homogenization

Process detail > Homogenization

Process detail > Homogenization

Process detail > Homogenization

Process detail > Homogenization

Process detail > Homogenization

Process detail > Homogenization

Process detail > Homogenization

Process detail > Homogenization

Process detail > Homogenization

Process detail > Homogenization > factors affecting ….

Process detail > Homogenization

Process detail > Homogenization

The index of homogenization should be in the range of 1 to 10.

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