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NaCl C12H22O11
As
Using Lewis Theory to Predict Chemical
Formulas Compounds
Predict the formula of the compound that forms between
calcium and chlorine.
∙ Cl ∙∙
∙∙ ∙∙
Draw the Lewis dot symbols
∙
Ca∙
of the elements.
∙∙ ∙∙
∙ Cl ∙∙ ∙∙ ∙ Cl ∙∙
∙∙ ∙∙
Transfer all the valance electrons Ca
from the metal to the nonmetal,
adding more of each atom as you
go, until all electrons are lost Ca2+
from the metal atoms and all
nonmetal atoms have 8 electrons.
CaCl2
Examples for Lewis representation
of some chemical bonds
•• •• •• •• ••
F• •F H• • O •H
••
•O •O
•
••
•
•• •• •• •• ••
•• •• ••
O ••
••
H O
••
H
••
••
••
F F
•• •• O
•• ••
F F O O
Example: Information:
Write the Lewis structure of Given: CO2
Find: Lewis structure
CO2.
Solution Map: formula → skeletal →
electron distribution → Lewis
C=4
N=5
O=6 •• •• • ••
•N •N C O ••
(-) = 1 • C O• •
••
Total = 16 e-
Example NO3─
-
1. Write skeletal structure.
– N is central because it is the
most metallic.
• Covalent bonds
• Metallic bonds
The three possible
types of bonds.
Ionic compounds consist of a cation and an anion
• the formula is always the same as the empirical formula
• the sum of the charges on the cation and anion in each formula unit
must equal zero. Lewis bonding theory is able to explain ionic bonds
very well.
The ionic compound NaCl
Ionic bonding
Ionization of Li
Formation
of solid
Sublimation of Li
Lattice Energy Calculations
Q1Q2
Lattice Energy k ( )
r
k: a proportionality constant that depends
on the structure of the solid and the
electron configuration of the ions
Q1 and Q2: charges on the ions
r: the shortest distance between the centers
of cations and anions
More Gains and Losses
Different types
of crystals are
formed
depending on
the ionic radii
and the charge
of the ions
involved.
How about the bonds between
atoms that have the same
electronegativity (as in H-H
molecule) or when the
electonegativuty difference is <
1.0 (as in C-H)?
Convalent Bonds—Sharing
• Some atoms are unlikely to lose or gain
electrons because the number of electrons
in their outer levels makes this difficult.
• Consider the Lewis dot structure of carbon
.
. C. . C+4 + 4e-
• The alternative is sharing electrons.
Covalent Bonds
• Often found between two nonmetals.
• Typical of molecular species.
• Atoms bonded together to form molecules.
– Strong attraction.
• Atoms share pairs of electrons to attain octets.
• Molecules generally weakly attracted to each
other.
– Observed physical properties of molecular substance
due to these attractions.
Covalent Bonding
• Electron are shared by nuclei
The Convalent Bond
• Shared electrons are attracted to the nuclei
of both atoms.
• They move back and forth between the
outer energy levels of each atom in the
covalent bond.
• So, each atom has a stable outer energy
level some of the time.
The formation of a bond between
two atoms.
An electron density plot for the H2
molecule shows that the shared electrons
occupy a volume equally distributed over
BOTH Hydrogen atoms.
••
•
•• •• ••
•• •• ••
••
••
••
F F
••
H O H
••
•• •• ••
F F
Double Covalent Bond
• Two atoms sharing two pairs of electrons.
– 4 electrons.
• Shorter and stronger than single bond.
•• ••
•O• •O
•
•• ••
O ••
•• O
O O
Chemical Bonds
Bond Polarity
• Bonding between unlike atoms results in unequal
sharing of the electrons.
– One atom pulls the electrons in the bond closer to its
side.
– One end of the bond has larger electron density than the
other.
• The result is bond polarity.
– The end with the larger electron density gets a partial
negative charge and the end that is electron deficient
gets a partial positive charge.
d+ H •• Cl d-
Nonpolar and polar covalent bonds
Probability representations of the
electron sharing in HF.
Trends in electronegativity across
a period and down a group
Nature of bonds and electronegativity
Electronegativity Bond
difference (∆)
∆>2 Ionic
0.4 < ∆ < 2 Polar covalent
∆ < 0.4 Covalent
In practice no bond is totally ionic. There will
always be a small amount of electron sharing.
Percent ionic character of chemical bonds as a
function of electronegativity difference
Bond Polarity and Dipole
Moments
Dipole Moment
μ=QR
Q: center of charge of
magnitude
R: distance
Dipole Moment of HF
Covalent Ionic
Pure Polar
0 0.4 2.0 4.0
Electronegativity difference
Polar Molecules and Electric Field
Polarized electron of HCl bond
Molecular Geometry
• Molecules are three-dimensional objects.
• We often describe the shape of a molecule
with terms that relate to geometric figures.
• These geometric figures have characteristic
“corners” that indicate the positions of the
surrounding atoms with the central atom in
the center of the figure.
• The geometric figures also have characteristic
angles that we call bond angles.
Valence Shell Electron Pair
Repulsion (VSEPR Model)
• It is used to predict the geometries of molecules
formed from nonmetals.
• Postulate: the structure around a given atom is
determined principally by minimizing electron pair
repulsion.
• The bonding and nonbonding pairs should be
positioned as far apart as possible.
Predicting a VSEPR Structure
• Draw Lewis structure.
• Put pairs as far apart as possible.
• Determine positions of atoms from the
way electron pairs are shared.
• Determine the name of molecular
structure from positions of the atoms.
For non-metals compounds, four pairs of
electrons around a given atom prefer prior
to form a tetrahedral geometry to minimize
the electron repulsions.
• Draw the Lewis structure
• Count the pairs of electrons and arrange them
to minimize repulsions
• Determine the positions of the atoms
• Name the molecular structure
• Lone pairs require more space than
bonding pair.
• The bonding pairs are increasingly
squeezed together as the number of lone
pairs increases.
• The bonding pair is shared between two nuclei;
and the electrons can be close to either nucleus.
• A lone pair is localized on only one nucleus, so
both electrons are close to that nucleus only.
Molecular Geometries
Molecular Geometries
Electron Pairs